Field Museum
Ref: Field Museum. Chicago, IL.
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Cladograms
All Life
Bacteria & other Prokaryotes
Fungi, Slime Molds, (and other Eukaryotes that aren’t plants or animals)
Green algae and plants
Invertebrates (animals without backbones)
Fishes & Primitive Tetrapods
Amniotes
Synapsids (mammals and their relatives)
Diapsids (Reptiles)
Synapsids
Varanopids
Caseids
Unk Synapsid Link
Ophiacodontids
Unk Link
Edaphosaurids
Unk Link
Sphenacodontids
Unk Link
Dinocephalians
Unk Link
Dicynodonts
Unk Link
Gorgonopsians
Cynodonts (including mammals)
Diapsids (Reptiles)
Lizards & Snakes
Turtles
Archosaurs
Crocodile Relatives
Dinosaur Relatives (including birds)
Unk Link
Thyreophorans (include Ankylosaurus, Stegosaurus)
Unk Link
Marginocephalians (include Triceratops)
Ornithopods
Unk Link
Theropods (include T-Rex)
Unk Link
Sauropods (include Brontosaurus, Brachiosaurus)
Prosauropods
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Egypt
Book of the Dead: A guide to the afterworld; Osiris and Isis (Osiris’ sister-wife) welcome the resurrected to new life.
The Osiris and Isis myth, according to Plutarch, the Greek writer: There are many variants of this important myth, but the basic idea of the struggle for balance between opposites always remains the same. Osiris' evil brother Seth-God of the desert-is jealous because the sun-God, Re, has made Osiris his heir. So, Seth tricks Osiris into lying down in a beautifully made box which he then slams shut and tosses into the Nile. Isis, angry and grieving, goes in search of her husband's body and eventually finds it, but he is dead. In spite of this, she is able, through magic, to become pregnant by him and bear a son. Seth discovers her hiding place and tears Osiris' body into fourteen pieces which he scatters throughout Egypt. Again, Isis looks for her husband and when all the parts are found (except the phallus, which had been eaten by a crab and which Isis models in clay to complete the body), Isis reconstructs him. By bandaging his body together and anointing it with precious oils, she restores Osiris to eternal life and creates the first mummy. Her son Horus, protector of the Nile valley, later takes revenge on his desert-dwelling uncle Seth. Through identification with the falcon-headed Horus, kings of Egypt were considered protectors of the Nile, sons of the sun-god, Re, and gods in their own right.
“The terrible things you did not do: 1) I did no harm to anyone; 2) I did not make my relatives nor companions unhappy; 3) I did not do any vile act in the abode of truth; 4) I had no acquaintance with evil; 5) I did not do evil; 6) I did not make anyone work beyond their capabilities; 7) I did not cause anyone to suffer nor be fearful, poor, or wretched; 8) I did not do what the gods hate; 9) I did not cause anyone to be hungry; 10) I did not cause anyone to weep; 11) I did not kill; 12) I did not command anyone to kill treacherously; 13) I did not lie to anyone; 14) I did not plunder the supplies in the temples; 15) I did not take the bread of the gods; 16) I did not steal any offerings to the dead; 17) I did not fornicate; 18) I did not commit any shameful acts with a priest; 19) I did not overcharge or defraud by lessening the supplies; 20) I did not alter the weights of the balance; 21) I did not tamper with the balance itself; 22) I did not steal milk from the mouth of the child; 23) I did not steal cattle from their pasture; 24) I did not snare birds sacred to the gods; 25) I did not take fish from their lakes; 26) I did not hinder the waters of the inundation; 27) I did not divert water running in a canal; 28) I did not blow out the offering flame before its time; 29) I did not deprive the gods of their choice offerings; 30) I did not injure the cattle belonging to the gods; 31) I did not defy any god; 32) I am pure, pure, pure (from Spell 126, Book of the Dead).
Mummification
1: Removal of the internal organs- intestines, liver, lungs, and stomach. Afterwards, the body cavity and organs are washed. The cavity might then be stuffed with straw or linen to help it hold its shape while drying.
2: The body and its organs are dried in mounds of natron, a naturally occurring combination of baking soda and other salts which absorb water and is mildly antiseptic. Drying takes ~40 fays.
3: Bandaging; after washing, oiling, and perhaps stuffing the body, the embalmers separately wrapped each finger and toe. Priests oversaw the placement of protective amulets and pronounced the proper prayers at each new step. As much as 400 yds worth of linen strips were used to completely wrap the body.
4: Burial; the now mummified individual is buried with their jarred internal organs.
Kingdom of Egypt: Divided into nine periods that reflect political and economic change. These are comprised of 31 dynasties or ruling family lines. It began in 3100 BCE, when King Menes first united the Southern and Northern parts or the land into the nation of Egypt.
332 BCE- 323: Egypt’s Ptolemaic Roman Period; (Alexander the Great, Cleopatra VII).
712-332 BCE: Egypt’s Late Period; Dynasties 25-31.
1085-712 BCE: Egypt’s Third Intermediate Period; Dynasties 21-24.
1567-1085 BCE: Egypt’s New Kingdom Period; Dynasties 18-20; (Hat-shep-sut, Akh-en-Aten and Nefertiti; Tut-ankh-Amun and Ramesses I and II).
1786-1567 BCE: Egypt’s Second Intermediate Period; Dynasties 13-17.
2134-1786 BCE: Egypt’s Middle Kingdom Period; Dynasties 11-12; (Sen’wosret III).
2230-2040 BCE: Egypt’s First Intermediate Period; Dynasties 9-10.
2755-2230 BCE: Egypt’s Old Kingdom Period; Dynasties 3-8; (Pyramids at Giza, King Unis and Unis-ankh).
3100-2755 BCE: Egypt’s Early Dynastic period; Dynasties 1-2.
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Inca
Mita: An Incan labor tax that required everyone to spend some time working on projects for the empire. Men worked on large projects constructing roads, bridges, and buildings. Women made cloth and brewed chicha; a kind of beer made from maize. While performing their mandatory service, laborers were fed by the government.
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Animalia
Horse Evolution: Paleocene Early Horse (Hyracotherium)- Oligocene Early Horse (Mesohippus)- Miocene Early Horse (Pliohippus).
Rhino Evolution: Eocene early browser rhino (Trigonias osborni)- Miocene early rhino grazer (Teleoceras major).
Elephant Evolution: Eocene Titanothere (Menodus)- Miocene early elephant browser (Gomphotherium).
Amniotic Sac
Amnion: A sac-like membrane containing fluid that cushions and protects the embryo.
Yolk Sac: Contains the Embryo’s food supply.
Allantois: Like a bladder, storing the embryo’s waste material.
Chorion: A thin membrane that coats the inside of the shell. It helps hold all of the egg’s contents together.
Outer Shell: Keeps the embryo from drying out while still allowing O to pass through.
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Eukaryotes
Nucleus: Holds the cell’s DNA- the instructions for cells to grow and function. A cell passes along a copy of its DNA to its offspring during reproduction.
Mitochondria: Converts food into energy. Scientists think mitochondria were once independent bacterial cells because they have their own DNA.
Cytoplasm: A chemical-rich water-based fluid that makes up much of the cell. Within the cytoplasm, the mitochondria, nucleus, and other special compartments carry out growth, metabolism, and other basic functions.
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Plantae
Land Plant Evolution: Earth's first land plants were small and moss-like, living near the water's edge. They evolved from green algae. Algae and plants are photosynthetic- they turn the sun's energy into food using colored pigments called chlorophylls. Different types of algae have different types of chlorophylls; the chlorophylls in green algae are the same types as those found in plants. This is one reason scientists think land plants evolved from green algae.
Flowers
Stamen: The male reproductive part of the flower. It produces the pollen containing sperm that fertilizes the female egg.
Carpel: The “female” reproductive part of the plant. The lower part is called the ovary.
Ovules: Inside the ovary; contain the eggs; (after an egg is fertilized, the ovule develops into the seed and the ovary develops into the fruit).
Sepals: Cover and protect the developing flower before it blooms.
Petals: Often brightly colored, attract insects and other pollinators.
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Chronology
1952: Egypt gains its independence from Britain, the first time since 30 BCE (Field Museum).
1937-1952: Egypt is ruled by King Farouk under the British Empire (Field Museum).
1882-1952: Egypt is ruled by the British (Field Museum).
1600-1900: Wishram society flourishes in modern WA (Field Museum).
1517: Egypt is conquered by the Ottoman Turks (Field Museum).
1400-1532: The Incan Empire (‘Tahuantinsuyu- “Land of the Four Quarters”) flourishes across modern Peru. Only 40,000 Inca rule over >10M people (Field Museum).
1325-1521: The Aztec Empire; using military skill and political diplomacy, the Aztec’s gain control over neighboring peoples and rule Central Mexico from their capital at Tenochtitlan (Field Museum).
1200-1520: Totenac society flourishes in modern Vera Cruz State, Mexico (Field Museum).
1000-1470: Chimu society flourishes in modern Peru (Field Museum).
1000-1400: Chancay society flourishes in modern Lima region, Peru (Field Museum).
1000-1400: Mississippian society flourishes in modern AR (Field Museum).
900-1400: Nicoya society flourishes in modern Cartago Province, Costa Rica (Field Museum).
900: The Maya collapse due to a combination of circumstances including war and drought (Field Museum).
800: New Zealand is first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
741: Tibetan forces capture Shibao, an ancient Chinese stronghold. Several years later, a Chinese force recaptures the town and takes the Tibetan minister of state hostage (Field Museum).
641: Egypt is conquered by Arabian forces (Field Museum).
600-1550: Diaguita society flourishes in modern Tucuman Province, Argentina (Field Museum).
500-1000: Wari society stretches along the central highlands of Peru from their capital at Wari (Field Museum).
500: The Hawaiian Islands are first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
500: Teotihuacan, covering 8 sqmi, is home to ~125K people (Field Museum).
400: Easter Island is first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
300-1600: Quimbaya culture flourishes in modern Cauca Province, Colombia (Field Museum).
300: The Marquesas are first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
250-900: The Maya are united as separate kingdoms covering modern Guatemala, Southern Mexico, El Salvador, and Belize (Field Museum).
200-800: Zapotec culture flourishes in modern Oaxaca State, Mexico (Field Museum).
100-700: Teotihuacan society rules Central Mexico (Field Museum).
100-800: Moche society, comprised of several smaller kingdoms united by political ties, dominates the North Coast of Peru, from their capital at Moche (Field Museum).
100-400: Hopewell society flourishes in modern Ohio (Field Museum).
100: The Marshall Islands are first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
30 BCE: Roman forces conquer Egypt despite Cleopatra VII’s futile attempts to prevent it. The Romans rule Egypt as an imperial province. Octavian revenges himself on the Greeks and Egyptians for supporting Cleopatra VII by setting up apartheid-type laws, forbidding interrelations between Romans, Greeks, Jews, and Egyptians, with Egyptians at the bottom of the social ladder. Oppressive Roman taxes impoverish Greeks and Egyptians alike. Temples are taxed and their estates are confiscated. Egyptian culture and religion weaken (Field Museum).
200 BCE-600: Nazca cultures thrives along the Nazca River of Southern Peru. Over time, the Wari incorporate the Nazca into the larger Wari society (Field Museum).
332 BCE- 323: Egypt’s Ptolemaic Roman Period; (Alexander the Great, Cleopatra VII); the Ptolemies do not impose Greek culture on the Egyptian populace, but they impose heavy taxes that cause uprisings (Field Museum).
343 BCE: Persian forces invade Egypt. The invasion is ended by Alexander the Great’s conquest of Egypt (Field Museum).
404 BCE: The Persians are evicted from Egypt (Field Museum).
475-221 BCE: The Warring States Period of China (Field Museum).
500 BCE: Monte Albán is founded in Modern Oaxaca, Mexico (Field Museum).
712-332 BCE: Egypt’s Late Period; Dynasties 25-31 (Field Museum).
1000 BCE: Samoa is first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
1085-712 BCE: Egypt’s Third Intermediate Period; Dynasties 21-24 (Field Museum).
1150-400 BCE: Olmec culture flourishes in modern Central Mexico (Field Museum).
1200 BCE: Tonga is first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
1300 BCE: Fiji is first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
1300 BCE: Guam is first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
1567-1085 BCE: Egypt’s New Kingdom Period; Dynasties 18-20; (Hat-shep-sut, Akh-en-Aten and Nefertiti; Tut-ankh-Amun and Ramesses I and II) (Field Museum).
1786-1567 BCE: Egypt’s Second Intermediate Period; Dynasties 13-17 (Field Museum).
4 Ka: The Sahara dries as diminishing monsoon rains create the vast hostile desert of today. People from this area most likely migrate East towards the Nile Valley (Field Museum).
2134-1786 BCE: Egypt’s Middle Kingdom Period; Dynasties 11-12; (Sen’wosret III) (Field Museum).
2230-2040 BCE: Egypt’s First Intermediate Period; Dynasties 9-10 (Field Museum).
2755-2230 BCE: Egypt’s Old Kingdom Period; Dynasties 3-8; (Pyramids at Giza, King Unis and Unis-ankh) (Field Museum).
3100-2755 BCE: Egypt’s Early Dynastic period; Dynasties 1-2 (Field Museum).
10 Ka: The Sahara contains lakes, marshes, forests, and grassy savannas where hunter-gatherers and later herding and farming people lived (Field Museum).
9000 BCE: New Britain is first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
11.5-11K BCE: Clovis culture flourishes in Modern IL (Field Museum).
13K BCE: New Caledonia is first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
27K BCE: The New Guinea highlands are first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
30K BCE: New Ireland is first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
40K BCE: The New Guinea coast is first settled by modern humans (Field Museum).
150 Ka: Extinction of Homo heidelbergensis (Field Museum).
195 Ka: Evolution of Homo sapiens in Africa (Field Museum).
400 Ka: Evolution of Homo neanderthalensis in Europe (Field Museum).
500 Ka: Evolution of sea otters, which are related to weasels (Field Museum).
2 Ma- 400 Ka: Life of Homo erectus in Western Asia, China, and Indonesia (Field Museum).
2-1.5 Ma: Life of Homo ergaster in Africa (Field Museum).
2.5-1.5 Ma: Life of Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis in Africa (Field Museum).
2.5 Ma: Hominids are using “pebble tools”; simple stones broken to create sharp cutting edges (Field Museum).
2.7 Ma: Formation of the Isthmus of Panama; North and South America connect at Panama; deer, cats, horses, dogs, bears, camels, and mastodons move south while porcupines, armadillos, opossums, anteaters, monkeys, and ground sloths move North (Field Museum).
3.2 Ma: Life of Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis) in Ethiopia (Field Museum).
15 Ma: Life of Pliohippus, an early horse with long legs and a big toe (Field Museum).
18 Ma: Life of Proconsul, the best known of the early apes (Field Museum).
20 Ma: Grasslands expand across the Earth; many browsing animals evolve to grazing (Field Museum).
20 Ma: Life of Menoceras, a now extinct North American two-horned rhinoceros (Field Museum).
22 Ma: Evolution of apes- primates that have certain features that set them apart from other primates, such as monkeys and lemurs. Apes don’t have tails, have very mobile hip and shoulder joints that allow them to hang, swing, walk, and move in ways other primates cannot (Field Museum).
25 Ma: Antarctica and Australia separate, allowing cold water circulation in the Southern Ocean (Field Museum).
25 Ma: Evolution of seals, sea lions, and walruses, which are all related to bears, dogs, and other meat-eaters (Field Museum).
33 Ma: Life of Mesohippus, an early horse, that had longer legs and a big central toe (Field Museum).
45 Ma: Evolution of the first sea mammals- dolphins and whales, from a land-dwelling animal related to the ancestors of horses and cows (Field Museum).
56 Ma: Life of Hyracotherium, an early horse, that had multiple small hooves (Field Museum).
~62-56 Ma: Life of Menodus, an early Titanothere, which reigns as one of Earth’s largest land mammals (Field Museum).
99-94 Ma: Life of Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, a Cretaceous era carnivorous fish (Field Museum).
100-66 Ma: Life of Quetzalcoatlus northropi, a late Cretaceous Pterosaur and the largest bird to ever fly (Field Museum).
100-66 Ma: Life of Geosternbergia sternbergia, a late cretaceous Pterosaur (Field Museum).
101 Ma: Life of Patagotitan mayorum, the largest terrestrial dinosaur known to science. This plant-eater is estimated to have weighed 70t, growing to 37m in length (Field Museum).
140-135 Ma: Evolution of angiosperms, flowering plants (Field Museum).
164-145 Ma: Life of Rhamphorynchus muensteri, an early Pterosaur with teeth and a long tail (Field Museum).
360 Ma: Evolution of pollen and seeds, making it possible for plants to reproduce away from water (Field Museum).
370 Ma: Tetrapods first walk on land (Field Museum).
375 Ma: Life of Tiktaalik, considered a “missing link” between sarcopterygian, or lobe-finned, fishes and their tetrapod descendants. In each of Tiktaalik’s front fins, there is a humerus, ulna, and radius- just like a tetrapod forelimb. It had a neck, so it could have moved its head without moving its entire body (Field Museum).
400 Ma: Evolution of Chondrichthyans (jawed fishes) (Field Museum).
430 Ma: Some plants evolve stems (vascular plants) that allow them to withstand periodic dry conditions by transporting water and nutrients throughout their systems. These stems also helped the plants stand up on their own (Field Museum).
450-440 Ma: Global cooling; a large landmass moves over the South Pole, causing glaciers to form and global temperatures to drop. This likely made sea levels fall, causing habitat loss, and triggering extinction of species (Field Museum).
~450 Ma: Evolution of the first vertebrates, animals with backbones (Field Museum).
~490 Ma: Evolution of sea stars (starfish) (Urasterella grandis) (Field Museum).
2 Ga: Evolution of stromatolites and, with them, photosynthesis. These layered structures form when sediments accumulate over sticky colonies of underwater cyanobacteria (a type of photosynthetic bacteria). Buried by sediments, the bacteria move upwards to get the sunlight they need (Field Museum).
2.5 Ga: Eukaryotes evolve as some cells begin engulfing other cells. Eukaryotes are different from prokaryotes because they have a nucleus, which contains the cell’s DNA and other specialized compartments, which perform different tasks within the cell (Field Museum).
3.5 Ga: Single-celled organisms (archaea and bacteria) are living in Earth’s oceans (Field Museum).
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