Somalia by Lewis

Ref: I.M. Lewis (2002). A Modern History of the Somali. East African Studies. Ohio University Press.

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Summary­

• Somalia is essentially a nation of pastoral nomads, forced by the exigencies of their demanding climate and environment to move with their flocks of sheep and goats and herds of camels and cattle in an endless quest for water and pasturage.

• Clan ties remain profoundly divisive, and combined with a bellicose uncentralized political culture, create formidable obstacles to the formation of stable, hierarchically organized political units.

• Particularistic clan rivalries and jealousies rooted in the exigencies of the eternal struggle for access to pasture and water are too strongly entrenched to admit of the possibility of widespread co-operation.

• The most pervasive element in politics remains the loyalty of the individual to his kin and clan.

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Somali Culture

• Ethnically and culturally the Somali belong to the Hamitic ethnic group.

• Language: The Somali language was unwritten until 1972.

• Camels: Carefully bred for milk and carriage; It is primarily in the size and quality of a man’s camels that his substance is most tellingly measured.

• Character: Somali’s value independence and resourcefulness.

• Poems: Often a poem is not merely the private voice of the author, but frequently the collective tongue of a pressure group, and propaganda either for peace or for war is more effectively spread through poetry than by any other means.

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Somali Clans

Clans: The largest effective political units (in Somalia); led by Sultans (Somali: Suldan, Boqar, Garad, Ugas).

• Somali political allegiances are determined by descent in the male line; and, whatever their precise historical content, it is their lineage genealogies which direct the lines of political alliance and division. These genealogies define the basic political and legal status of the individual in Somali society at large and assign him a specific place in the social system.

• Dir: The oldest Somali clan, occupying much of Modern Somaliland, Puntland, Dire Dawa, and Djibouti. Based The Dir, specifically the Isaaq, are known for their domination of Somaliland politics. Subclans include the Issa, Issaq, Gadabursi, and the Biyomal.

  • Issa: Located in Dire Dawa and Djibouti.

  • Isaaq: Somaliland.

  • Gadabursi: Somaliland.

  • Biyomal: Marka.

• Hawiye: Based primarily in Galmudug and Hirshabelle with a significant presence in Mogadishu. The Hawiye are seen as the most aggressive clan and are regarded as the most sophisticated political actors. Subclans include the Habar Gidir, Abgaal, and Murosade.

• Darod: The largest and most widely distributed of all the Somali clan-families. Comprises multiple major groups including the Ogaden, Marehan, and Harti.

  • Ogaden: Reside in the Ogaden region of Somalia and Ethiopia as well as in N. Kenya.

  • Marehan: Divided into a N. group in Galmudug and a S. group in Jubaland.

  • Harti: A federation of the various clans including the Majerteen, the Dulbahante, the Warsangeli.

    • Majerteen: Puntland.

    • Dulbahante/Warsangeli: Sool and Sanaag Regions. 

• Rahanweyn: With the Digil, early settlers amongst the Zanj between the Shebelle and Juba Rivers in Somalia. A mixed nomadic pastoral and agrarian clan whose Somali name means “Commonwealth” owing to its confederative composition, primarily as a union between the more nomadic Mirifle and more agrarian Digil. The Rahanweyn is located predominantly in SW State.

  • Digil: With the Rahanweyn, early settlers amongst the Zanj between the Shebelle and Juba Rivers in Somalia.

• Historic Clans:

  • Zanj: Hamitic Galla and Somali peoples that lived in the fertile land between the Shebelle and Juba Rivers in Modern Somalia. Today, the Zanj survive in a few scattered groups in Jubaland and in the S. of the Rep. where they are generally known as the Ribi (or Wa-Ribi) and as Boni (or Wa-Boni).

• Minority Clans

  • Bantu: Primarily agrarian and concentrated in communities along the banks of the Juba and Shabelle Rivers. Comprise ~7-15% of the Somali population. They face widespread social, political, and economic marginalization from the noble clans.

  • Bajuuni: A seafaring community concentrated in Jubaland.

  • Benadiri/Reer Hamar/Barwani: Believed to be descendants of Arab immigrant settlers from Yemen, Iran, and S. Asia. They settled in coastal towns of S. Somalia including Mogadishu and Baraawe.

  • Reer aw Hassan: A small minority based in SW State and Hirshabelle.

  • Arab: Based on historical trade networks, largely connected to Somalia’s coastal cities.

  • Occupational Castes: Low status groups relegated to low status jobs and include the Gabooye, Yibrow, Yahar, Yibor, Midgan, and Madhiban. 

• Clan Structure

  • Elders: (Generally all adult men); control clan affairs.

  • Governance: With few exceptions, clan decision-making is democratic almost to the point of anarchy.

  • Diya-Paying Group: The most binding and most frequently mobilized loyalty in Somali Clan groups. These units, with a fighting strength of from a few hundred to a few thousand men, consists of close kinsmen united by a specific contractual alliance whose terms stipulate that they should pay and receive blood-compensation in concert. An injury done by or to any member of the group implicates all those who are a party to its treaty.

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Somali Economics

• Somalia’s chief export crop is the banana.

• Remittances by Somali’s abroad are valued at >$800M and account for between 20-40% of per capita household income in Somalia.

• Export trade – principally of hides and skins, and cotton and bananas, the latter taking precedence over the former after 1932.

• Between the Shebelle and Juba Rivers is relatively well-watered: and, indeed by local standards, so fecund as to constitute the richest arable zone in the whole of Somaliland. Here the principal crops are sorghum, Indian corn, sesame, beans, squashes and manioc; as well as fruits, and sugar-cane.

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Somali Politics

• Legal System

  • Self-help still retains much force as the most effective sanction for redressing wrongs and adjusting political and legal issues between groups.

  • Generally, the blood-compensation due when a man is killed is rated at 100 camels, while a woman’s life is valued at half that figure.

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Somali Religion (Islam)

• Somali sheikhs are not normally political leaders and only in exceptional circumstances assume political power.

• Pillars of Islam: Profession of belief in God and the Prophet, daily prayers, fasting, almsgiving, and pilgrimage.

• Tariqas (‘the Way’): The Sufi, or mystical view of the Muslim faith.

• Kadis: Muslim magistrates that adjudicated religious issues and matters of personal status involving Islamic law.

• The only significant basis for wider communal feeling outside and transcending clanship is Islam. Muslim clerics and businessmen tend to ally in promoting public order through the establishment of Shariah courts, with their own paid militias. These religious and business leaders, from time to time in conflict with the local warlords, are the most powerful and sincere advocates for the restoration of law and order in their own localities, and outside these for the safe and unimpeded transport of their goods.

• After 2001, U.S. and European preoccupation with terrorist threats discouraged Islamic organizations whose positive, socially beneficial activities seemed to offer the only realistic potential for the indigenous restoration of order in southern Somalia.

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---Colonies---

• British exclusiveness and empiricism, the accent on quality rather than quantity in educational and social advancement, attachment to British conceptions of justice and ideals of administrative conduct, and the strict separation of politics from administration, all contrasted in northern eyes with the apparently less rigorous standards of political and public service morality in the south and with the involute Italian bureaucratic tradition.

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Britain’s Somaliland Protectorate

• Britain’s interest was strictly limited to seeing that no hostile power held the shore opposite Aden and to ensuring that the Aden garrison’s meat supplies from the Somali coast were unhampered.

• The Protectorate’s population was divided amongst three clans – the Dir, Isaq and Darod.

• All effective power remained with the District Commissioners who also acted as magistrates, the territory being divided into six separate Districts.

• District Commissioners naturally wielded very great authority and their position was enhanced in this respect by the Illalo tribal police detachments assigned to their control.

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Italy in Somalia

• Somalia was of primary concern to Italy, and in taking over direct responsibility for the Benadir coast in 1905 the Italian government did so with every intention of developing a true colony which could serve the mother-country both as a source of primary goods and as a convenient receptacle for some of Italy’s surplus population.

• Italy’s aim was to attract Italian settlers and to develop colonial plantations along the Shebelle and Juba Rivers. Each worker was allocated 1hA of land, of which half was for his own use, while the remainder was to be worked by him for the Benadir Company at rates which varied according to the yield produced. The employer was obliged to provide seed for the worker’s own use, and additional wages were paid during harvest and at planting time. During pregnancy, women were to be given light work, and to be granted one month’s leave after bearing a child. Health and sanitary services were provided in the colonial villages in which the workers were forced to live.

• After 30y of direct rule, despite a great expenditure of finance and effort, the colony was still running at a marked deficit, and was very far from being the economic asset to their country which the early Italian pioneers had forecast.

• Italian Trust Administration (AFIS): Established to foster the development of free political institutions and to promote the development of the inhabitants of the territory towards independence.

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France in Djibouti

• The effect of French policy was the isolation of the Côte from the tenor of Somali advancement elsewhere.

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Somali Independence

• Bonds based on clanship were the most pervasive, the most commanding, and above all the most insidious obstacle to Somali Independence. No other single line of communication and common interest connected so directly and incontrovertibly the pastoral nomad in the interior with his kinsmen in the civil service, in the National Assembly, or in the cabinet itself. No other bond of mutual interest had so many far-reaching ramifications in all aspects of private and public life.

• Somali Army: At independence, an amalgamation of the former Somaliland Scouts with the Somalia Military.

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Greater Somalia

• The creation of the Republic still left out Somali nationals living in French Somaliland, in the E. regions of Ethiopia, and in the N. Frontier District of Kenya. The situation thus confronting the newly formed Republic in 1960 is best described in the Prime Minister’s own words. ‘Our misfortune’, Dr ‘Abd ar-Rashid.

• Greater Somalia is comprised of Somali kinsmen whose citizenship had been falsified by indiscriminate boundary “arrangements”. Those parts of the Somali nation which still languished under foreign rule – the French Territory of the ‘Afars and Issas (Jibuti); the Ogaden (Ethiopia); and the NE region of Kenya (Garissa, Wajir, and Mandera districts).

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Siyad Regime

• Political Bureau (Siyad Regime): Consisted of the President, the 3x VPs, Generals Husseyn Kulmiye, Muhammad ‘Ali Samatar (Army commander), Isma‘il ‘Ali Abokor (Assistant Secretary General of the Party); and the N.S.S. head, General Ahmad Sulayman ‘Abdulle.

• The Siyad regime waged ceaseless wars against the country’s enemies – poverty, disease, ignorance – and launched national campaign after campaign, Siyad was presented as the omnipotent leader in the relentless struggle forward to progress and victory.

• 1969-1974: 1st Phase of Somali General Siyad’s military rule, characterized as a period of concentration on internal problems, namely, local development and the consolidation of the regime’s authority.

• 1984-1987: Somalia’s foreign aid makes up the majority of the state’s resources; with Italy contributing >$1B.

• Gang of Five: Siyad’s first wife, her eldest son, General’ Maslah, Siyad’s cousin and maternal brother, ‘Abdarahman Jama Barre (Foreign Minister), ‘Abdillahi Warsamme Indolleh (Minister for Co-operatives) and ‘Abd al-Qadir Haji Muhammad (Deputy Secretary General of the Party).

• MOD: The secret name given to the Siyad regime; M stood for the patrilineage of the President, O for that of his mother, and D for that of his principal son-in-law, head of the National Security Service.

• Siyad’s one potentially positive legacy to succeeding political leaders might be a state of clan paralysis, discouraging civil war.

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Ogaden War

• The long train of border incidents with Ethiopia had erupted into open war and the Ogaden was in resurgence.

• Following the Ogaden War, Somalia’s primary arms dependency on the Soviet Union had been replaced by more generalized aid dependency on the USA, the EEC and OPEC countries.

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Reconstruction Efforts

• The EU embarked on a policy of encouraging decentralized development which recognized achievements in reestablishing functioning local communities (‘recovery zones’ in the jargon of U.N. and other development agencies). This favored a ‘bottom-up’ (‘building block’) approach rather than the top-down, centralized, hierarchical model that had failed so dismally in the former Somalia and in UNOSOMs calculations.

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Misc Quotes

“The general problem elsewhere in Africa is the construction of nations from the polyglot and polytribal territorially defined states, with their arbitrary frontiers, which are the legacy of colonialism.”

“It is not that people do not know how to make peace or reach political compromises, as some international organizations naively suppose; it is a matter of motivation.”

“We have learned of a cardinal principle underlying the effectiveness or otherwise of a political union between two Independent States. It is this: the ordinary person must be able to identify himself and his interests with the new order, on economic, ethnic, and cultural grounds.”-Somalia President (Jul, 1962).

“The fate of the Isaq is to remain forever as stupid as donkeys.”-Sayyad.

Imperial Roman Dictum: Roads are the basis of successful war and expansion and of peaceful prosperity.

“Tribalism and nationalism cannot go hand in hand. . . . It is unfortunate that our nation is rather too clannish; if all Somalis are to go to Hell, tribalism will be their vehicle to reach there.”-Siyad Barre.

“As every attempt by local self-styled “politicians” to come to terms with one another fails, new “leaders” appear on the scene claiming to represent increasingly fragmented communities. This incredible intensity of proliferating local politics is baffling to anyone without a well-informed understanding of such uncentralized segmentary societies, and sometimes even intellectually taxing to Somalis.”-Helander on Somali Politics.

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People

• Mohamed Siyad Barre (1910-1995): Despotic Somali President and Military General who came to power in a 1969 Coup. Siyad despised ‘tribalism’ as an intolerable abomination and banned all references to clans.

• Sayyid Muhammad ‘Mahdi’ Abdille Hassan (1864-1920): Somali leader of the Dervish movement calling on national against the ‘infidel’ opponents. Mahdi sought to replace traditional clan loyalties by allegiance to his cause (Dervish forces were organized into units on a non-clan basis) and recruited and trained women as warriors, with some mounted-on horseback. Idolized as a national hero.

  • Mahdi believed that Christian colonization sought to destroy the Muslim faith of his people. This fired his patriotism and he intensified his efforts to win support for the Salihiya, preaching in the mosques and streets that his country was in danger, and urging his compatriots to remove the English ‘infidels’ and their missionaries.

• Halane: A young Somali LT who died while attempting to save his country’s colors in the brief outbreak of fighting with Ethiopia in 1964.

• Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad Gran- ‘the left-handed’) (1506–1543): Imam and general of the Adal sultanate that conquered and briefly ruled the Christian Ethiopian heartland in the 16c.

• Muhammad Abshir Muse (1926-2017): Somali General and first commander of the Somali Police Force.

• Muhammad Farah Hassan Aideed (1934-1996): Somali General of the Habar Gidir Clan and co-founder of the United Somali Congress (formed in Rome in 1989 with members drawn from the Hawiye clans). With the USC, drove Siyad Barre out of Mogadishu in Apr, 1991. Aideed was a national army career officer, held in detention for years by Siyad, who regarded him as a threat.

  • Nickname: ‘One who does not take insults lying down’- fully borne out by his ferociously touchy character: those who displeased him ran the risk of summary execution by his bodyguard.

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Terminology

• Nomadism: The economic response and mode of livelihood to the scant resources of a harsh environment.

• Osmaniya: The Somali alphabet script.

• Wadads (Sheikhs): Those who devote their lives to religion and in some sense practice as men of God.

• Waranleh (‘spear-bearers’): Warriors.

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Geography

• Dawa Parma River: Marks the NW boundary between Kenya and Ethiopia.

• Hargeisa: Capital of the former British Somaliland Protectorate.

• Shebelle (‘Leopard’) River: Extends from the Ethiopian Highlands some 2000km before disappearing in a series of marshes and sand-flats close to Jilib on the Juba.

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Chronology

• 3 May, 2002: Death of Somaliland President Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Igal, aged 74, while in a hospital in South Africa. The VP, Dahir Riyaleh Kahin, assumes the Presidency.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Nov, 2001: The Somali President confirms Hassan Abshir Farah as PM, one of Siyad’s many ‘mayors of Mogadishu’.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Oct, 2001: Collapse of Somali PM Ali Khalif’s administration following financial scandals, failure to improve security, and inability to deal with inflation.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jul, 2001: Morgan’s Militia attacks Kismayu. The city is retaken by the Marehan ‘Juba alliance’.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 31 May, 2001: Somaliland National referendum; the people of Somaliland confirm independence and validate the new constitution with 97% of the vote in favor.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Mar, 2001: Formation of the Somali Reconciliation and Restoration Council by warlords, HQ’d amongst the Rahanweyn at Baidoa under the leadership of CDR Hassan Muhammad Nur (‘Red Shir’). The Rahanweyn sought to recover control of their territory S. of the Lower Shebelle extending as far as the coast.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Aug, 2000: The Djibouti conference; Somalia delegates appoint an interim national assembly based on clan and gender quotas and a President with the mandate to appoint a Transitional National Government to organize elections within 3y. Assembly membership included 44 seats for Darod, Hawiye, Digil, Mirifleh and Dir clans, 24 for ‘minorities’, 25 for women, and the balance of 20 personal nominees of the Djibouti President. Abdulqassim Salad Hassan was chosen as President who, in turn, chose Ali Khalif Galayd as PM.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jan, 2000: The Ethiopian government negotiates a peace accord with the opposition Afar party (FRUD).-Somalia by Lewis.

• 2000: Rise of Islamic governance, namely Sharia, throughout Somalia to provide vitally needed social services in health and education, as well as aid for the destitute.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Apr, 1999: Djiboutian President Elections; following the retirement of Hassan Guled office, Ismail Omar Geelle is ‘democratically’ elected with >70% of the 170K votes cast.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Apr, 1998: France announces that it would scale down its garrison of legionnaires (from 3500-2600), a significant decline as the French presence accounted for ~33-50% of Djibouti’s GDP.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Mar, 1998: FRUD guerillas attack Ethiopian border posts from Somalia.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Mar, 1998: A Somali Majerteyn conference is held in Garo with Darod delegates from Somaliland which establishes the new ‘Puntland state of Somalia’, with Abdillahi as its first elected President. Puntland did not follow Somaliland in declaring unilateral independence, principally on account of a large presence of Majerteyn clansmen in the southern Somali port of Kismayu.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1997: Djibouti Presidential Elections; the Congress of the government party, dominated by the Ise clan, re-elects Hassan Guled.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 23 Feb, 1997: Re-election of Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Igal for a 5y term, receiving 223 votes, more than double his nearest opponent.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Aug, 1996: Death of Somali President Aideed during clashes that erupt in Mogadishu between the Abgal and Habar Gidir gunmen for control of banana exports.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 15 Jun, 1995: Aideed is appointed Interim Somali President.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jan, 1995: Death of ousted Somali President and Marehan dictator Muhammad Siyad Barre, while in exile in Nigeria.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Mar, 1992- 1995: UNOSOM, UNITAF, and UNOSOM II missions authorized by the UNSC fail to stabilize Somalia. The UN authorize Resolution 953 directing the withdrawal of all UN forces.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Mar, 1995: Termination of UNOSOM; of the ~$1.6B allocated for military operations, ~4% went into the Somali Economy, with the remainder used mostly to the benefit of the warlords.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1995: ‘Operation Quick Withdraw’; US Marines, with naval support, and equipped for the first time in Somalia with sophisticated, non-lethal, crowd control weapons, oversee the UN evacuation. The final U.N. exodus, in March, was marked in Mogadishu by extensive looting.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 31 Oct, 1994: The UNSC authorizes Resolution 953; the withdrawal of all UN forces from Somalia by 31 Mar, 1995.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Mar, 1994: Somali warlords Mahdi and Aideed sign a new agreement denouncing further violence and committing to peaceful reconstruction. UNOSOM’s mandate is consequently revised from peace enforcement to peace keeping with the military force reduced to ~22K contributed solely by third world states. No real progress in political reconstruction took place and the U.N. reverted to its former practice of dealing primarily with the warlords and their associates, having abandoned its never-convincing efforts to ‘empower’ traditional clan elders.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Nov, 1993: POTUS Clinton announces that all US forces would depart Somalia by 31 Mar, 1994. Ambassador Oakley, who had directed the earlier Operation Restore Hope, is sent back to Mogadishu to secure the release of US captives and bring Aideed to the negotiating table. The announcement of the impending U.S. withdrawal triggers a progressive decline in international support as other national contingents prepare to depart.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Oct, 1993: ‘Black Hawk Down’; Aideed’s forces succeed in shooting down several US helicopters, taking an American airman prisoner and inflicting serious casualties on US personnel.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 12 Jul, 1993: ‘Operation Michigan’; UNOSOM II conducts an unprovoked helicopter gunship attack on a meeting of Habar Gidir elders, killing 73.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 5 Jun, 1993: A party of Pakistani blue berets is ambushed in Somalia as it prepares to inspect some of ‘Aideed’s’ arms stores near his radio station. 24 Pakistanis are killed with more wounded. In response, Admiral Howe authorizes a series of ferocious attacks, including helicopter gunship strikes on Aideed’s bases in Mogadishu. There was now all-out war in Mogadishu between ‘fortress UN’ and Aideed and his swelling following of ragged guerrillas.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Jan- May, 1993: The historic Grand Conference of Somali National Reconciliation is held in Borama. Parties agree on a transitional national charter and appoint Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Igal (Habar Awal) (Somaliland’s first and Somalia’s last PM) as the new President in succession to Abdarahman Tur (Habar Yunis), who had held this position since Somaliland’s declaration of independence in 1991. The Borama Conference produces a Peace Charter, regularizes the role of traditional local elders, and formulates a national charter, -Somalia by Lewis.

  • 27 Mar, 1993: A ceasefire agreement is signed in Mogadishu by the leading warlords and representatives of various clan movements committing the parties to ‘complete’ disarmament and empowering the UN to take strong and effective sanctions against defaulters. The agreements called upon the formation of a Transitional National Council (TNC) with representatives from 18 regions to form a government over the following 2y.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • May, 1993: Withdrawal of UNITAF from Somalia. UNOSOM II, led by Submarine Commander Admiral Howe, takes over, inadvertently recruiting many Habar Gidir clansmen to admin roles, compromising its intel service.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 26 Mar, 1993: UNOSOM II is authorized by the UNSC to take over following the withdrawal of UNITAF as a multinational force of 20K peace-keeping troops, 8K logistics staff, and 3K civilian personnel under the leadership of Admiral Howe, an American submarine commander who had been a security adviser to POTUS Bush.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1993: ‘Operation Restore Hope’; the US led UNITAF mission under Robert Oakley deploys to Somalia with 33K personnel (28K USA) with the mission to deliver food and humanitarian supplies to S. Somalia. UNITAF was charged by the UN to disarm the warlords, bringing them into direct conflict with Aideed’s encampments and Morgan’s militia.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 3 Dec, 1992: Authorization of UNITAF in Somalia; The USG under POTUS Bush, on the recommendation of intervention in Somalia by COS Colin Powell, pass Resolution 794, authorizing a humanitarian operation under Ch. VII of the UN Charter. The decision is endorsed unanimously by the UNSC.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Nov, 1992: Resignation of UNOSOM CDR Sahnoun, citing lack of support for the mission.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1992: UNOSOM is authorized by the UNSC with 50 observers to monitor the ceasefire in Mogadishu. The force is led by Algerian diplomat Muhammad Sahnoun with the task to secure food distribution. In Aug, he reports that ~1.5M people (25% of the Somali population) were at risk but that he lacked the means to provide the necessary armed protection for food convoys. In response, the UNSC authorizes a force of 3500 blue-berets that arrive in fall, 1992 and secure the airport by mid- November.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Mar, 1992: A ceasefire is declared in S. Somalia enabling humanitarian relief to resume, primarily from UNICEF. Factions levied heavy taxes on cargoes, taking cuts of 10-20% on incoming aid, and charging relief agencies exorbitant fees for providing armed escorts on food conveys they were apt also to loot.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 18 May, 1991: Somaliland declares Independence from Somalia, appointing Abdarahman Tur as its first President.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1991-1993: Forces under Somalia USC leads Mahdi and Aideed battle for control of Mogadishu leaving the capital in a protracted bloodbath, killing an estimated 14K and wounding ~40K. The defeated Darod, particularly Siyad’s own Marehan clansmen, regroup along the Juba River, laying waste to the agricultural region between the rivers, killing and terrorizing cultivators. Agriculture and livestock production is devastated, famine spreads, and the UN estimates that as many as 300K perished from famine with >1M seeking refuge in Kenya, Ethiopia, Yemen, Europe, and N. America.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Early 1991: While Somali General Aideed is pursuing Siyad’s forces out of Mogadishu, his USC partner Ali Mahdi seizes the initiative, establishing a government and splitting the city into two armed camps (North and South), polarized along clan lines (Abgal and Habar Gidir).-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jan, 1991: Somalia Military Coup; Somali President Siyad Barre (popularly known as the ‘Mayor of Mogadishu’) is overthrown by the United Somali Congress (USC) led by General Muhammad Farah Aideed and Ali Mahdi.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jan, 1991: The USC led by Mahdi and Aideed drive Siyad Barre and his bodyguard out of Mogadishu.

• 1989: Formation of the United Somali Congress (USC) in Rome; drawn from the Hawiye clans and led by General Muhammad Farah Aideed and Mahdi.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Late 1980s: Foreign aid to Somalia dries up under pressure of human rights activists on Western governments, appalled at the ferocious suppression of the populist rebellions in Somaliland and Majerteynia. By 1990, Siyad’s control scarcely reached outside Mogadishu and his opponents referred to him as ‘Mayor of Mogadishu’.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Apr, 1988: Ethiopia and Somalia sign a peace accord, obliging each party to terminate support for the other’s dissidents.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Mid Aug, 1987: Spontaneous riots occur in Mogadishu.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Feb, 1987: General Samatar (previously MoD) is appointed ‘First Minister’ following a meeting of the Party Central Committee in a new government which consolidates Marehan power in the MoD. Previously, the MoD and Foreign Affairs directly reported to the Head of State, so there now appeared to be, in effect, two governments- one around General Samatar and the other around President Siyad.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • More than half the Somali Army’s senior officer corps belonged to the President’s clan or related clans, with the proportion in the capital even higher. To the members of other clans, these developments seemed to indicate that the Marehan were building a defensive clan laager which was a far cry from the earlier MOD tripartite alliance of Marehan, Ogaden and Dulbahante.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jan, 1987: The Military Governor of Somali’s northern regions proposes a campaign of harsh military and economic measures, similar to those earlier applied in Mudug against SSDF sympathizers.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 23 Dec, 1986: Somali Presidential Elections; Siyad is formally reelected Somali President with 99.9% of the vote.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Dec, 1986: SNM assassinates Somali’s N. regions National Security Service Chief.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Sep, 1986: Somali’s Central Committee of the Party proposes Siyad as President for a further 7y. This is endorsed unopposed at the Party Congress in November.-Somalia by Lewis.

• May, 1986: Somali President Siyad is injured in a near fatal car crash. His security guards hijack a Somali hospital doctor at gunpoint, forcing him to the scene of the accident without explaining what had happened and thus not allowing him to bring appropriate medical equipment. During his absence, Senior VP General Muhammad Ali Samatar takes over as acting head of state, declaring a state of emergency. Siyad returns to Somalia the following month.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jan, 1986: The Somali and Ethiopian heads of state meet in Jibuti to discuss the SSDF and SNM guerilla organizations based in Ethiopia.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1984: Inflation in Somalia reaches 90%.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1983: The Saudi government imposes a rinderpest ban on Somali imported stock.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1983: The Somali government prohibits the sale and cultivation of the stimulant narcotic plant, qat (Catha edulis), which had become a flourishing cash crop in the NW regions.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jun, 1982: SSDF forces cross the Ethiopia-Somalia border and seize control of a small area of Mudugh claiming that a national uprising was underway against the Siyad regime. A state of emergency is declared, and a series of draconian measures launched to recover the territory. The SNM, drawing support from the Isaq clans of Togdher region, announce support to the SSDF.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1982: The livestock export trade peaks with Somali exports valued at $132M, representing 80% of Somalia’s total foreign exchange earnings.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Mar, 1982: The Supreme Revolutionary Council is disbanded (again) when President Siyad pays his first official visit to the US.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Late, 1981: Formation of the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) guerilla organization HQ’ed in Ethiopia by Mudugh- based Majerteyn clansmen associated with the unsuccessful attempted coup of 1978.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1980s: Somalia’s chronically underpaid civil service becomes increasingly demoralized; officials who wished to survive without incurring political difficulties assiduously kept their heads down and avoided promotion to positions where they might attract unwelcome interest.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Oct, 1980: Height of Somalia’s refugee crisis which is aggravated by fuel shortages; the President declares a state of emergency and resurrects the Supreme Revolutionary Council.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Summer, 1978: Following the defeat of Somali forces in the Ogaden, Ethiopian forces turn their attention to Eritrea, which had recovered control of nearly all of Eritrea except for beleaguered Ethiopian garrisons in Asmara and the Port of Massawa.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 9 Apr, 1978: Failed Somali Military Coup; 500 rebel soldiers under Majerteyn clan colonels die in ensuing battles with forces loyal to President Siyad. Several coup leaders escape to Kenya.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 9 Mar, 1978: President Siyad withdraws his Somali forces from the Ogaden. Russian and Cuban forces follow suit, effectively conceding victory to the Ethiopians. Hundreds of thousands of Somali and related tribesmen flood into the Somali Rep. in search of refuge.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • The perilous state of the economy in the aftermath of the Ogaden War and the financial burden of the refugee crisis made it difficult for the Somali government not to accept an IMF package of economic ‘liberalization’ measures. These involved devaluing the Somali currency; reducing state control in production, marketing and price-setting; and encouraging small businesses as well as seeking to develop exports. The banana industry, formerly a major item in exports, had declined disastrously in the era of Scientific Socialism, with state-controlled sugar production similarly diminishing and failing even to satisfy the local market.

• Mar, 1978: Somali forces abandon Jigjiga after heavy aerial bombardment by MIGs and an Ethiopian force with 60-70 Cuban tanks and Soviet weapons systems bypass Marda and attack the city from the N.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Feb, 1978: The Ogaden War; Somalia officially enters the war in Ethiopia, announcing a general mobilization.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Nov-Dec, 1977: The WSLF siege Harar but are not able to capture the town, with the battle turning to stalemate. Western partners refuse to support the Somali government, advising them to negotiate from a position of strength while the WSLF had the Ogaden.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • The ‘Afar Liberation Front, who with the Oromo Liberation Front were also now waging a guerrilla war against the Ethiopians, had cut the vital road from the port of Assab which, with Massawa and Jibuti out of action, was the sole port of entry for Russian supplies.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 13 Nov, 1977: The USSR withdraws all support to Somalia including communications stations and its submarine missile handling station in Berbera. The Somali-Soviet treaty of friendship (whose terms Russia had violated by supplying arms to Ethiopia) is renounced, and 6,000 military and civilian personnel and their families given a week to leave the country.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 18 Oct, 1977: A W. German CT unit successfully rescues a hijacked Lufthansa jet in Mogadishu.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Sep, 1977: The USSR airlifts MIGs, tanks, and heavy weapons to Addis Ababa.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Sep, 1977: The Somali WSLF liberate Jigjiga, the main Ethiopian military HQ in the Ogaden. The Ethiopians retreat from the Marda Pass, which commands the road to Harar. Controlling Jigjiga, the WSLF sweep on towards Harar pursuing their ultimate objective; freeing the entire Somali area up to the Awash valley.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 7 Sep, 1977: Fighting in the Ogaden intensifies; Ethiopia breaks diplomatic relations with Somalia.-Somalia by Lewis.

• End July, 1977: In response to the WSLF claim to have liberated the strategic center of Gode; Ethiopia accuses the Somalia Dem. Rep. of mounting a full-scale war of aggression and appeals for external help. At the beginning of August, a mediatory initiative by the OAU fails when the Ethiopians refused to allow the issue of Somali self-determination be discussed or to permit WSLF representation.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • It was later reported that Saudi Arabia had promised Somalia £230M for armaments, on the understanding that Somalia sever its Russian links.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 27 Jun, 1977: The Rep. of Jibuti gains independence with veteran Somali politician Hassan Guled as its first President and ‘Abdallah Muhammad Kamil as PM. The new infant state becomes the 49th member of the OAU and the 22nd member of the Arab League.-Somalia by Lewis.

• May, 1977: Ethiopian President Mengistu visits Moscow and declares mutual collaboration with the USSR and the denunciation of ‘imperialist’ and ‘reactionary’ forces which were accused of aggravating tension in NE Africa.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Apr, 1977: Ethiopian President Mengistu’s closes US installations in Asmara, expelling US personnel after the USA denounce Ethiopia’s record on human rights.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 16 May, 1977: Djibouti Elections; Hassan Guled, chairman of the LPAI and former deputy in the French National Assembly, is elected President of the Council, heading a government of 10 ministers, six of whom belonged to his own party and none to FLCS-Somalia by Lewis.

• Mar, 1977: Cuban President Fidel Castro unsuccessfully attempts to maneuver General Siyad and Colonel Mengistu into accepting a loose socialist federation, under Soviet patronage.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Spring, 1977: Oromo guerrilla forces recover control of most of the countryside in Bale.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Feb, 1976: FLCS terrorists hijack a school bus in Somalia containing the children of French military personnel and drive it to the border. French forces storm the bus.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Oct, 1975: The Somali government nationalizes the import and distribution of most foreign manufactured goods.-Somalia by Lewis.

• May, 1975: Kidnapping of French Ambassador to Somalia by the Front de la Côte des Somalis (FLCS), with HQ in Mogadishu.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1975: Catastrophic drought in Somalia; a state of emergency (‘holy war against the famine’) is declared and all grain produced, mainly in the south, is purchased by the Agricultural Development Corporation and sold at controlled prices through retailers or distributed through orientation centers. Each farmer was allowed to retain a proportion of his crop for domestic consumption.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Many Somalis in relief camps are displaced to collectives and state farms along the Shebelle and Juba Rivers in the south, or in coastal fishing communities to supply the Russian-aided fish-canning industry. This sudden re-location of Somali population involved up-rooting people from their traditional grazing areas and settling them amongst unrelated clans and lineages, where they were to change from nomadic herdsmen to sedentary cultivators or fishermen (both traditionally despised by the nomads).-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jan, 1975: Execution of ten local religious sheikhs in Somalia, charged with preaching in mosques against a liberal new law which, contrary to traditional Islam, gave women the same inheritance rights as men.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 12 Sep, 1974: Ethiopian Military Coup; the Ethiopian Military led by Mengistu overthrow Emperor Halie Selassie.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1974: Somalia becomes a formal member of the Arab League.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1973-1975: The Somali government sponsors urban and rural mass literacy campaigns.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Jul, 1974: The Somali government dispatches an educational taskforce of 30K secondary school students and teachers to the interior at a cost of £10M. In parties of 8, with a teacher as leader and with the participation of veterinary and medical personnel, they teach the nomads to write their own language, hygiene, modern animal husbandry methods, basic civics and the aims of Scientific Socialism.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1972: Somalia successfully mediates in the confrontation between Uganda and Tanzania.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1972: The Somali government adopts the Roman alphabet as the official script for the national language, Somali.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jul, 1972: Execution of two Somali generals (one a VP) on the charge of attempting to overthrow General Siyad’s regime.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Oct, 1970: Somali President Siyad Barre proclaims that Somalia would henceforth be dedicated to Scientific Socialism. “Hanti-wadaagga ilmi ku dhisan (Somali): wealth sharing based on wisdom,” linked with the ideals of unity or ‘togetherness’ (waddajir), ‘self-reliance’ (is ku kalsoonaan) and ‘self-help’ (iskaa wah u qabso) were now government policy. Orientation centers (hanuunin) were established in city centers and the public was expected to assemble to study the aims and methods of the Revolution. ‘Tribalism, divides [where] Socialism unites’.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Nov, 1969: The Somalia SRC announces the formation of a 14-member committee of ‘Secretaries’ with executive powers, who would be responsible for day-to-day administration. The SRC embarks on an energetic revitalization of the country’s government, economy, and social services. The aim, enjoying wide popularity, was to clean out the Augean stables and to restore Somali virtues with a realistic and concerted onslaught on the people’s real enemies: poverty, disease, and ignorance.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1 Nov, 1969: Membership of the Supreme Revolutionary Council (S.R.C.) is announced under President General Muhammad Siyad Barre (who had succeeded the late General Da‘ud as army commander in 1965) assisted by 24 other officers.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 21 Oct, 1969: Somalia Military coup; rather than wait for the nomination of Haji Muse Boqor as the new Somalia President, the army occupies key points in Mogadishu, arrest key leaders of government, suspend the constitution, abolish the supreme court, close the national assembly, declare political parties illegal, and establish rule by a Supreme Revolutionary Council. The new regime’s aims stressed the elimination of corruption and tribal nepotism and the re-establishment of a just and honorable society in which proper attention would be given to real economic and social betterment for all. In external affairs, existing treaties would be honored, and the Somali unification struggle would continue, while further support would be given to liberation movements generally and to the fight against colonialism. The state was renamed the ‘Somali Democratic Republic’.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 15 Oct, 1969: Assassination of Somali President ‘Abd ar-Rashid ‘Ali Shirmarke, shot by one of his police guards. At this news, the Premier, Haji Ibrahim Igal, hastens back to Mogadishu to organize the election of a new President; his nomination was Haji Muse Boqor.

• 1963-1970: Sporadic fighting between Ethiopian authorities and Ogaden tribesmen are suppressed by a massive Ethiopian military operation that regains control in 1970.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Nov, 1963: The Somalia Rep. refuses an offer of Western military assistance valued at almost £6.5M in favor of Russian military aid to the tune of nearly £11M.-Somalia by Lewis.

• May, 1963: Creation of the Somali National Congress by ~20 members of the Somali Assembly.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1963: A Somali guerrilla campaign in Northern Kenya (shifta- Kenya (‘bandits’-war) develops in the region after Britain’s failure to implement the border findings of the 1962 Commission.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 12 Mar, 1963: Relations between Britain and Somali Rep. are severed after British Colonial Secretary Mr. Duncan Sandys, announces that the NFD would be brought into Kenya’s regional constitution. The Rep. lost her annual British subsidy of £1.5M and Britain lost overflight rights and was forced to close her powerful BBC Middle Eastern service relay transmitter at Berbera.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Feb, 1963: Tanzania hosts the Afro-Asian solidarity conference in Tanganyika. No state which aspired to play a leading rôle in Pan-African affairs could afford to commit itself on the Somali side.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Nov, 1962: A Kenya- Somalia border commission comprised of a Nigerian judge and a Canadian General publish its report finding that the Somali who they estimate to make up 62% of the NFD’s population ‘almost unanimously’ favored secession from Kenya with the object of ‘ultimately’ joining the Somali Republic. This desire was shared also by the majority of the other smaller Muslim communities in the district (principally Muslim Galla). The Commission’s findings were largely as had been anticipated, but the report stated that there should be ‘no question of secession before Kenya gets independence’.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Summer, 1962: Formation of the Somali Democratic Union, attempting to amalgamate the GSL, SNL, and some of the USP and HDMS, under the leadership of Haji Muhammad Husseyn.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jan, 1962: Nigeria hosts the Lagos conference, urging that the Somali dispute be placed before an arbitrating body which was to be established to deal with conflicts between African states.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Dec, 1961: Failed Somalia Military Coup.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 6 Jul, 1961: Somali Presidential Elections; Provisional president Adan ‘Abdulle ‘Isman, wins by a narrow majority from his opponent Sheikh ‘Ali Jumaleh after three ballots are cast.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 20 Jun, 1961: A Somali national referendum approves the provisional constitution.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1961: Kenya elections; the predominantly Somali Districts of Garissa, Wajir, Mandera, and Moyale, form a single constituency (Northern Province East). But only 1,622 people registered as voters: Somalis had generally decided to boycott the elections on the grounds that to participate in them would imply that they accepted Kenyan citizenship.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • KANU asked why the non-Somali tribesmen of the NFD who might not wish to leave Kenya should be sacrificed to the Somali demand for secession. The solution to this problem, they claimed, was simple. Let those Somalis who desired it, leave Kenya and join the Somali Rep: no one would stop them.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Sep, 1960: Merger of Somalia’s SNL and USP parties.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Sep, 1960: The ambitious Tug Wajale mechanized wheat and sorghum farming scheme is launched in Somalia.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1960s: Modernization of Hargeisa; the British improve the airport, Russia and the UAR provide funds for new local industries, and as a counter-part to the £2.5M U.S.-aided port development scheme at Kismayu in the south, Russian engineers examine the possibilities of improving harbor facilities at Berbera.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jul, 1960: Merger of Somaliland and Somalia as the Somali Rep. following meetings between legislatures in Mogadishu. The assembly elects Adan ‘Abdulle’ Isman as provisional President and agrees to ratify a constitution within 1y. Somaliland would henceforth be known as the ‘Northern Regions’ with Somalia as the ‘Southern Regions’. Six days later, on 7 July, Jama’ ‘Abdillahi Qalib, a leading member of the northern S.N.L., is elected by the Assembly as its new President in place of Adan ‘Abdulle.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1 Jul, 1960: Somalia attains full independence.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 26 Jun, 1960: British Somaliland attains full independence from Britain.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 2 May, 1960: Somaliland protectorate leaders meet in London to discuss independence. All Britain seeks is the continuation of the lease for the BBC Middle Eastern service relay station at Berbera.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Feb, 1960: Somali elections for the new Legislative Council (Somali legislature); the SNL gain 20 of 33 seats, the NUF/SYL one, and the United Somali Party representing the Darod and Dir, 12.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Dec, 1959: The U.N. General Assembly adopts a resolution determining that Somalia’s trusteeship should terminate on 1 July, 1960.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Dec, 1959: Ethiopia and Somalia agree that the British provisional line should remain in force until a final settlement is reached.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jul, 1959: On a brief visit to the Jibuti Côte, General de Gaulle announces that France attaches extreme importance to the port of Jibuti and has no intention of relinquishing control.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1959: Ethiopian Emperor Selassie visits Moscow and accepts a $100M Russian loan.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1959: Reconstitution of the Somali Legislature with 12 elected members, two nominated officials, and 15 official members with the Governor, Sir Theodore Pike, as President. The SNL boycott the elections leaving the field clear for the SYL and NUF.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Feb, 1959: British Colonial Secretary Mr. Alan Lennox-Boyd states that his government is prepared to facilitate negotiations for the union of the Somaliland Protectorate with Somalia after each territory had become independent.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Oct, 1958: Somali women first vote in municipal elections.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1958: In a Gaullist referendum, the Jibuti Côte’s population votes against emancipation, choosing to remain an overseas territory of France.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1957: Establishment of an elected legislature in Jibuti with responsibility for internal affairs.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 25 Aug, 1956: While giving a speech in the Ogaden, Ethiopian Emperor Selassie claims that the Somali people are part of the ‘Great Ethiopian Family’.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1956: The British advance the pace of Somaliland Independence, indicating they would not oppose the eventual union of the Protectorate with Somalia if this was desired.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Apr, 1956: Somalia’s NUF travels to Addis Ababa offering to buy back the Haud, Ethiopia says no.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1956: Formation of the National United Front (NUF) in Somaliland, which launches a vigorous campaign to recover the Haud and obtain independence for the Protectorate within the British Commonwealth.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1956: Formation of the Somali Legislative Assembly. Composed of 70 seats (43- SYL, 13- HDMS, 3- SDP, 1- Marehan Union, 10- ethnic minorities, 4each- Italian/Arab communities, 1each- Indian/Pakistani groups), the assembly had full statutory powers in domestic affairs, although the head of the Italian trust retained the right of absolute veto.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • The SYL was called upon to form a government under ‘Abdillahi ‘Ise as Somalia’s first PM. Atop his programme was to settle the disputed frontier with Ethiopia.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1956: After reviewing Somalia’s financials, the World Bank concludes that Somalia might require exceptional financial assistance for as many as 20y after independence.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 29 Nov, 1955: Britain signs an agreement with Ethiopia providing for the complete withdrawal of British Authority from the Haud. Massive demonstrations occur throughout the Protectorate to express a deep sense of Somali outrage.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1954: Italy launches a 7y Development plan for Somalia’s economic resources.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1954: The Higher Institute of Law and Economics, later Somalia’s University College, opens, providing a 2y Rome University diploma course.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1954: Somalia’s first municipal elections are held; 16 parties present candidates. 75% of the male electorate voted (suffrage being confined to men), and the SYL win over half the available 281 seats.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1952: Eritrea is federated to Ethiopia.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1952: An ambitious 5y development programme to improve general education in Somalia is launched with UNESCO collaboration.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1951-1957: The Somali Dulbahante and Habar Tol Ja’lo clans clash over blood compensation.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1950: Italy opens the School of Politics and Administration in Mogadishu as a training center for Somali officials and Political leaders.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 21 Nov, 1949: The Somali Assembly votes to entrust Somalia for 10y to an Italian administration under U.N. tutelage.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Nov, 1948: The British Somaliland Protectorate returns to its pre-war status. Berbera, as well as several other stations, had been seriously damaged in the war, and it was decided to build a new government HQ at Hargeisa, the site of Sheikh Maddar’s religious community.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 23 Sep, 1948: British control of the Ogaden is transferred to Ethiopia.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jan, 1948: A Commission arrives at Mogadishu to demarcate the boundaries of Somalia. The commission asks for support from the SYL, led by Abdillahi Ise (later the first premier of Somalia), who had split into the SYL and the ‘Progressive Majerteyn League’. On the morning of the SYL statement, a throng of Italians armed with bows and arrows arrived, determined to break up the SYL demonstration. Tensions mounted and 51 Italians were killed with a similar number wounded.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • The SYL stressed its aim of bringing the Somali territories together under a single government, of working steadily towards full independence, and advocate a 10y period of trusteeship for Somalia under a Four Power administration. On no account would the League countenance a return of Italian rule. The HDMS broke with the SYL, favoring the return of Somalia to Italy.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1947: British departs the Ogaden, leaving it in the hands of Ethiopia in fulfilment of the 1942 and 1944 Anglo- Ethiopian agreements. When the decision was announced at Jigjiga, a riot occurred in which 25 Somalis lost their lives.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 25 Mar, 1947: The Hizbia Digil-Mirifle Somali is formed under the presidency of Sheikh ‘Abdallah Sheikh Muhammad.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1946: Formation of the Somaliland National League from the merger of a local association with the Somaliland National Society.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jul, 1946: Formation of District and Provincial Advisory Councils in Somalia to discuss problems such as water supplies, pastoral betterment, agricultural improvement, unemployment, food scarcities, etc.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1945: Formation of the Jibuti Côte’s Territorial Council.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1945: An Anglo-Ethiopian agreement is signed returning the Franco-Ethiopian railway to its pre-war status along with the British military cantonments in Ethiopia, while enabling British military administration to continue in the Ogaden.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1944-1945: Somali Harvests are severely devastated by a plague of locusts.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1944: Ogaden leaders petition the British Military Administration, urging Britain not to relinquish their territory to Ethiopian rule.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1944: An Anglo-Ethiopian agreements reinforces Ethiopian sovereignty over the Ogaden.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 13 May, 1943: The Somali Youth Club opens in Mogadishu with much of the inspiration coming from ‘Abdulqadir Sekhawe Din, a prominent Mogadishu religious figure. Religious aims were married to a modern consciousness of nationhood and strengthened by a desire for progress in general. The most important rival was originally formed under the name of the Patriotic Benefit Union (‘Jumiya’), representing chiefly southern Rahanweyn and Digil tribesmen, the partly Bantu riverine peoples, and some of the local Arab community.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • The club had a four-point programme: ‘To unite all Somalis generally, to educate the youth, to eliminate situations which might be prejudicial to the interests of the Somali people; and to develop the Somali language and assist in putting into use among Somalis the ‘Osmaniya Somali script’.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1943: Somalia is self-supporting in primary food stuffs.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1943: Following years of Italian repatriation from Somalia, only 4500 Italians remain.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1942: An Anglo-Ethiopian agreement grants Ethiopia sovereignty over the Ogaden and reserved areas.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1942: Somalis in the Harar–Jigjiga region clash with local Ethiopian forces after Ethiopia attempts to impose direct taxation.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1942: French Somaliland declares for De Gaulle.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Mar, 1941: The British recover Somaliland from Italy and occupy Somalia and the Ogaden during the EA Campaign and liberation of Ethiopia during WWII. Somalia remains under British occupation until 1950.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Aug, 1940: Italy captures British Somaliland, adding the territory to the Somali portion of their EA empire.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1937: Formation of the Somali Officials Union, a Somali political movement to promote Somali interests in the Civil Service; inspired by discontent at the Administration’s policy of employing Indian and Arab clerks instead of training local Somali for these posts.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1936: Jibuti’s salt factory reaches maximum production.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 7 May, 1936: Italian Conquest of Ethiopia; An Italian force defeats an Ethiopian force at Adowa, enlarging Italy’s Somalia by the addition of the Ogaden. >40,000 Somali recruits had participated in the conquest, leading to the first stirrings of modern Somali nationalism. These take the form of small clandestine meetings, organized mainly by some of the new generation of Somalis who had been to school and were employed by the Italian government.-Somalia by Lewis.

• ~1935: Emergence of the Somaliland National Society after Somali groups of local merchants and traders begin organizing political associations and clubs in main centers of Berbera, Burao, and Hargeisa.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 5 Dec, 1934: The Clash at Walwal; an Ethiopian force, while escorting a demarcation commission led by Col. Clifford and Bante clash with an Italian garrison, who force the Ethiopians to withdraw.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Nov, 1934: A border commission party led by Col. Clifford and Bante arrive in Walwal, E. Ogaden. After completing its unpopular work of demarcation, the Commission crosses into the Ogaden to survey the wells and grazing areas there to which British-protected Somali were entitled access. This brought the Commissioners to Walwal on 23 November where, to their alarm, they found their Ethiopian escort which had preceded them confronted by a well-armed Italian post.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1934: An Anglo-Ethiopian commissions demarcates Britain’s Somaliland protectorate.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Sep, 1931: Ethiopian forces evict the Italians at their Mustahil post and then sweep down the Shebelle to menace the Italian district HQ at Beletweyn.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jun, 1931: An Anglo-Italian agreement is signed in London agreeing to the demarcation of the Somaliland/Somalia border. Similar to the original Anglo-Italian agreement of 1894, this ratification seemed to imply that the frontier of Somalia was recognized as extending along the SE part of the Protectorate as far west as Do‘mo in the Ogaden, i.e. to the 47th meridian east.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Sep, 1930: An Anglo-Italian commission led by Col. Stafford and Italian scholar/civil servant Dr. Cerulli complete their work on the demarcation of the border between British Somaliland and Italy’s Somalia.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1930: Ethiopian forces cross into the British Somaliland protectorate and seize livestock. An encounter with the Borama authorities quickly follows in which shots are exchanged and 4 Ethiopians killed.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1929: The first Somali government geological survey is initiated to provide a basis for a badly needed well-drilling schemes to aid the nomadic sector of the economy.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1928: A small diesel railway system is established linking the plantations at Afgoi and Villagio Duca degli Abruzzi with the capital and port of Mogadishu.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1928: A locust plague in Somalia destroys the harvest, leading to widespread famine.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1926-1939: French development of the port of Jibuti.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1926: Omar Samatar attacks the Italian post at El Bur in the Ogaden.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1925: Britain cedes Jubaland to Italy; part of Italy’s modest share of the spoils of WWI. The clansmen concerned were not consulted, and little or no account was taken of clan distribution or grazing needs. The incorporation of Jubaland and the two northern protectorates led to a corresponding extension of direct administration, and the colony was now divided into 7 provinces or ‘Regions’ comprising 33 Districts presided over by Residents. The Civil Service now included ~350 expatriate Italians as well as 1,700 locally recruited Somali.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1925: Operations against the Sultans of Obbia and Alula result in the incorporation of these N. Italian protectorates into the colony of Somalia.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1924: The Treaty of London is signed, transferring Jubaland to Italy.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1920s: Formation of the Somali Islamic Association by Haji Farah Omar, a former employee of the British Administration, who was exiled to Aden and contrived to bring Somali interests to the notice of  people in Britain.-Somalia by Lewis.

• ~1920: Invention of the Somali alphabet by Isman Yusuf Kenadid.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1920: The Benadir coast and hinterland is brought under Italian sovereignty.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1919: The Somali-Oroma (Galla) agreement is signed allowing the Galla, who remained with the Darod on the left bank of the Tana to choose between accepting the formal position of serfs, or of moving across the river to join their free kinsmen.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1917: The Franco-Ethiopian railway reaches Addis Ababa.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1911-1912: The Time of Eating Filth; a drought induced famine strikes East Africa with a large proportion of the Somali population reduced to a state of starvation. By the end of 1912, perhaps a third of the Somali population dies.-Somalia by Lewis.

• May, 1908: An Italo-Ethiopian treaty is signed granting Italy a frontier running from Dolo on the Juba N. to the Shebelle where it joined the line already agreed to previously. The Italians provided Menelik 3M lire. The Rahanweyn, for instance, were allocated to the Italian sphere, while the Digodia, Ogaden and others ‘north of the frontier line’ were to be dependent upon Ethiopia.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 6 Dec, 1907: An Anglo-Ethiopian agreement is signed, fixing the frontier between Ethiopia and NE Kenya (then still the British East African Protectorate) at Dolo on the Juba River.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 13 Dec, 1906: An Anglo-Italo-French Agreement is signed, pledging the three powers to ‘co-operate in maintaining the political and territorial status quo in Ethiopia’ as determined by present conditions.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jan, 1905: Britain enables Italy to convert her lease of Somalia’s Benadir coast from the Sultan of Zanzibar into an outright purchase conferring full rights of possession.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1905: The Italian Benadir Company is nationalized by the Italian Government, Italy takes over direct responsibility for the Benadir coast.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Aug, 1899-1920: The Somaliland Campaign (aka Anglo-Somali War, Dervish War); the Dervishes led by Sayyid Mahdi are defeated by a loose alliance of British, Ethiopian, Italian, and Isaq clan forces.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • The extension of British rule to cover a large area of the hinterland of the Somaliland Protectorate was the result rather than the cause of the Dervish war.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 21 Dec, 1920: Death of Mahdi to disease (flu or malaria), at 56yo. The Salihiya brotherhood which had existed outside his movement as well as within it, continued, greatly expanding in scope.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Oct, 1920: Mahdi and his followers flee to Imi on the upper Shebelle River in Ethiopia. His followers build 13 new forts and unsuccessfully seek Ethiopian protection.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1920: Mahdi rejects an offer from the British to surrender on the understanding that he would be allowed to establish a religious settlement in the W. of the Protectorate and, under the watchful eye of the Administration, live in peace. Shortly after, the Dervishes attack Isaq clansmen grazing their livestock near the Ethiopian border and suffer heavy losses. The attack rouses fierce Isaq resentment, and the outraged clans sought and gained the sanction of the Administration for a massive tribal onslaught on the new Dervish HQ in the Ogaden.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Early 1920: The British launch a major expedition against the Dervishes, bombing Taleh and forcing the Dervishes to flee into the Ogaden.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Feb, 1915: The British capture the Dervish fort at Shimberberis, leaving a considerable gap in the Dervish network of advanced posts. At the same time, the British blockade of the coast becomes thoroughly effective, greatly reducing the Dervish supply of arms and ammunition.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Dec, 1913: Pro-Muslim Prince Lij Yasu becomes Emperor of Ethiopia, moving his court from Dire Dawa to Harar. Yasu, desiring a vast Muslim Empire in NE Africa, enters into relations with Mahdi.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Aug, 1913: The Battle of Dulmadobe; a large British force commanded by Richard Corfield is deployed against the Dervishes. Corfield dies and his force suffers heavy casualties.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1909: Assassination of Qadiriya Order Southern Branch leader Sheikh Uways Muhammad of Brava, by a party of Dervishes near Bioley, after denouncing the Dervishes.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Jan, 1908: The Warsangeli clan led by Garad Mahamud ‘Ali Shiire within Somaliland’s British Protectorate joins the Dervishes, firing on a British Dhow that was landing on their coast.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1907: Ethiopia deploys a force against the Dervishes which, after failing to find them, turns S. to Lugh, raiding livestock and annihilating the Italian garrison. Ethiopia provides reparations to the Italy and the Italian press the Ethiopians for a definition of the frontier.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 19 Mar, 1907: An Anglo-Italian Agreement is signed, divesting Britain and Italy of any responsibility for the Mahdi’s actions towards the Ethiopians.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1905-1908: The Dervishes pursue a minor war against Yusuf ‘Ali, the Sultan of Obbia.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 5 Mar, 1905: Italy and the Dervishes sign a peace agreement at Illig, accepting Mahdi’s agreeing to peace under Italian protection in exchange for Mahdi’s conditions. The peace lasts until 1908.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1904: Dervish leader Mahdi agrees to peace after several combined Ethiopian, British, Italian expeditions reduce Dervish strength and morale. Sayyid stipulated four main conditions: a fixed residence on Italian territory, governorship over his followers, religious liberty, and freedom to trade.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Jun, 1900: A force of 1000 Dervish cavalry raid an Isaq clan, carrying off 2000 camels.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1900-1904: Four major expeditions are mounted against the Dervishes between the British, Ethiopia, and Italy.-Somalia by Lewis.

    • 17 Apr, 1903: Battle of Gumburu Hill; the Dervishes kill 9 British officers and 189 men.-Somalia by Lewis.

    • 22 May, 1901: ‘The Mad Mullah’ operation; a 1500-man British/Indian force under LTC Swayne deploys against the Dervishes.-Somalia by Lewis.

    • Mar, 1900: Mahdi’s Dervishes storm the Ethiopian post at Jigjiga, recovering the stock looted by the Ethiopian expedition.-Somalia by Lewis.

    • Early, 1900: An Ethiopian expedition deploys to locate the Dervishes but fails to do so and dissipates its energies in looting camels and other livestock indiscriminately, furthering inflaming Ogaden animosity against the Ethiopians.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Sep, 1899: Mahdi sends a letter to the Somaliland British Consul-Genereal accusing the British of oppressing Islam. The letter contained the challenge: ‘Now choose for yourselves. If you want war, we accept it; but if you want peace, pay the fine.’ The Consul-General replied by proclaiming Mahdi a rebel and urged his government in London to prepare an expedition against the Dervishes.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1899: Somali Sheikh Hassan is charged with stealing a rifle (which he had supposedly traded for four camels) by the British Administrations tribal constabulary- known as Illalos (‘to watch over’- Somali). The Illalos request its return to which Hassan replies with a declaration of defiance. Shortly after, Hassan holds a large assembly amongst the Dulbahante calling on the clan to join him in a crusade against the infidels. Many Dulbahante, and later Isaq Habar Tol Ja’Lo and Habar Yunis, join the Sheikhs cause and are issued with white turbans and a Muslim rosary and renamed the Dervishes- a term applied in Somaliland to adherents of the Salihiya Order. By the fall, Hassan, who assumes the title ‘Mahdi’ and is reported to have ~5K men, formally declares a holy war against the Christian colonizers (namely Britain and Ethiopia).-Somalia by Lewis.

• 13 Jan, 1895- 23 Oct, 1896: The First Italo-Ethiopian War; Ethiopian forces under Menelik II defeat Italian forces leading to the Treaty of Addis Ababa. Italy’s Benadir company assumes control of the Filonardi company.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 23 Oct, 1896: The Treaty of Addis Ababa is signed delineating the borders of Italian Eritrea and forcing Italy to recognize the independence of Ethiopia.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1 Mar, 1896: The Battle of Adawa; Heavily outnumbered Ethiopian forces under Emperor Menelik II defeat a combined Italian/Eritrean army, forcing them to retreat to Eritrea.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 15-16 Jan, 1895: The Battle of Senafe; Italian forces defeat retreating Tigrayan forces following the Battle of Coatit (Wiki).

  • 13 Jan, 1895: The Battle of Coatit; Italian forces defeat Tigryan forces under Warlord Ras Mengesha Yohannes in Eritrea (Wiki).

• 1894: An Anglo- Italian Protocol is signed forcing Italy to reduce claims to the Ogaden.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1892: The port of Djibouti becomes the official capital of the French ’Jibuti’ Colony.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1892: The Sultan of Zanzibar cedes the ports of Brava, Merca, Mogadishu, and Warsheikh directly to Italy for a term of 25y with an annual rent fixed at 160,000 rupees.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1891: Menelik claims the ancient boundaries of Abyssinia, including ‘the Province of Ogaden, the Habar Awal, the Gadabursi, and the ‘Ise’ (the last three Somali peoples being clans with whom Britain, and in the case of the ‘Ise, France also, had treaties of protection). The letter also contained the challenging declaration: ‘Ethiopia has been for 14 centuries a Christian Island in a sea of pagans. If Powers at a distance come forward to partition Africa between them, I do not intend to be an indifferent spectator.’-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1891-1893: Italians Vesme and Cadeo cross the Ogaden, obtaining requests for Italian protection from Ogaden clan elders. They reach Bardera in Apr, 1893 and conclude a treaty of protection with the Somali of that region. In all, they establish seven stations including Itala, Giumbo, Warsheikh, Brava, Merca, Mogadishu, and Lugh, the latter 4 of which are administered by Italian residents.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Mar, 1891: An Anglo-Italian protocol is signed defining the boundaries of Italian Somaliland.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1891: The Italians open the port of Adale and use the station for the next 45y as their principal base for the conquest of Ethiopia.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 2 May, 1889: The treaty of Ucciali is signed between Italy and Emperor Menelik (who had assumed John of Tigre’s title following his death on the battlefield of Metemma against the Dervishes). The Italian version of this treaty was interpreted as making Abyssinia an Italian protectorate; Italy established direct claims to the Somali coast on the Indian Ocean to the E. of the British sphere. In the process, Somali clans which had lain outside the ancient Abyssinian hegemony were incorporated in the new Ethiopian empire.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 9-10 Mar, 1889: The Battle of Gallabat (‘Metemma’); Mahdist Sudanese forces defeat Ethiopian forces at Gallabat, Ethiopia. Emperor Yohannes IV (‘John IV’) is killed in battle (Wiki).

• 1888: An Anglo- French agreement defines the boundaries between Britain and France as between Zeila and Jibuti: 4y later, the latter port became the official capital of the French colony.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1887: Britain establishes a Somaliland Protectorate.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1887: Menelik seizes the city of Harar, after the soldiers of Abdallah Muhammad, massacre a party of Italian explorers. Menelik appoints his cousin Ras Makonnen as governor of Harar.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1886: Ethiopian Emperor Menelik mounts military expeditions against Harar and Somali Afar and Oromo tribesmen with supplies from France, Italy, and Tsarist Russia, extending Ethiopian dominion to parts of Somalia, and provoking a fierce Dervish struggle under the fiery Ogaden Sheikh, Muhammad ‘Abdille Hassan, who adopted the militant Salihiya branch of the Islamic Ahmadiya Order, and sought to regain Somali independence from Ethiopian rule.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1885: Egypt withdraws from their garrison at Harar leaving ‘Abdallah Muhammad’, a Harari, as governor of the city with a British advisor.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Early, 1885: The French assert that their Red Sea Dominion extends beyond Tajura to Jibuti.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Feb, 1885: Following the Egyptian withdrawal of their garrison at the Eritrean port of Massawa and encouraged by Britain, Italy proclaims a protectorate on the Eritrean coast from Assab to Massawa.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1884: The British establish defensive treaties with several Somali clans including the Ise, Gadabursi, Habar, Garhajis, Habar Awal, and Habar Tol Ja’lo, replacing the former Anglo-Somali trade agreement (1827). They pledge themselves ‘never to cede, sell, mortgage, or otherwise give for occupation, save to the British Government, any portion of the territory presently inhabited by them or being under their control’. A further clause obliged each clan not to enter into relations with any foreign power except with the knowledge and consent of Britain. Three British ‘Vice-Consuls’ are established at Berbera, Bulhar, and Zeila, the latter of which had a joint condominium agreement with turkey.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Jul, 1882: British troops occupy Suez, Ismailia, and Port Said in Egypt.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1882: Under British pressure, Italy purchases the port of Assab and agrees to recognize Egyptian sovereignty to the north and south of her settlement.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1881: A Franco-Ethiopian trading company opens at Obock.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1870-1884: Egypt rules the Somali coast and uses corvée labor to improve the ports of Zeila and Berbera erecting piers, lighthouses, and restoring the ancient Dubar aqueduct at Berbera. The Egyptians encouraged Islam and several new mosques were built during their tenure of the coast. The Egyptian régime was abruptly terminated by the Mahdi’s revolt in the Sudan which necessitated a concentration of Egyptian resources and a drastic curtailment of outlying responsibilities in Eritrea, Harar, and the Somali coast.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1884: Collapse of the Egyptian French cooperative, Egypt evacuates Harar, Zeila, and Berbera, giving France an impetus to establish a base on the Red Sea route.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1874: Egypt occupies Keren in Eritrea.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1873: Egypt occupies Annesley Bay in Eritrea.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1870: The Suez Canal opens, linking the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1866: Turkey transfers the Red Sea Ports of Suakin and Massawa to the Egyptian Government of Khediva Isma’il, who claims the new jurisdiction also includes the Somali coast including Zeila.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1865: A smallpox epidemic strikes the Galla in Somalia. Taking advantage, the Darod attack the Galla, inflicting heavy losses and forcing many to flee S. By the turn of the 19c, most of S. Galla had been cleared from the area, retaining footholds only at Wajir and Buna.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1862: The French purchase the port of Obock from the Afar.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1859: The Danakil port of Obock is ceded to the French.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Nov, 1855: The British and the Somali Habar Awal sign a treaty providing for the appointment of a British resident at Berbera.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 19 Apr, 1855: Several hundred Somali spearmen launch an attack on a British camp led by Burton who, despite numerical disadvantage, manages to escape to Aden. British authorities promptly respond, sending two vessels of the India Command to blockade the coast until the attackers were surrendered to justice. The following year the elders of the Habar Awal clan announced that Stroyan’s assailant had been executed by his own kin and offered 15,000 dollars as compensation.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1839: The British establish a settlement at Aden by force, for ships traveling to India. With its poverty in local resources, the Aden garrison was dependent upon N. Somaliland for supplies of meat.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1828: Mogadishu and the ports of the Benadir Somali coast pass to the Sultan of Zanzibar following the bombardment of Mogadishu and the division of the Muscat state.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1827: The British East Africa Company (EAC) and the local Habar Awal Clan sign a commercial trade treaty. Main exports were slaves, ivory, hides, horns, ghee, and guns. Following intervention by Haji ‘Ali’, the British regularly blockade the coast until 1833.-Somalia by Lewis.

• ~1800: Ahmadiya is founded as a Muslim Order at Mecca by Sayyid Ahmad ibn Idris al-Fasi.-Somalia by Lewis.

• End 17c: The Rahanweyn in Somalia succeed in driving the Galla from their stronghold at Bur Hacaba. These Galla withdraw W, eventually crossing the Juba and moving on to its right bank.-Somalia by Lewis.

• End 17c: Mogadishu, with other EA ports, comes under the protection of the Oman Sultanate.-Somalia by Lewis.

• Early 17c: Hawiye Somali settlers defeat the remaining Ajuran, bringing the downfall of the Muzaffar dynasty.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1577: The Abyssinian capital is transferred from Harar to the oasis of Aussa in the Danakil deserts where it was hoped to be secure from further attack.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1557: Following an appeal for assistance from the Muslims, the Turkish occupy Massawa and Arkikio (modern Eritrea). Eventually, Zeila, and to some extent Berbera, fall under the authority of the Sharifs of Mukha and both ports are nominally incorporated in the Ottoman Empire.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1529-1543: The Ethiopian-Adal War (‘Abyssinian-Adal War); Christian Abyssinia, supported by Portugal, defeat the Muslim Adal Sultanate led by Imam Ahma ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, supported by the Ottomans, Afar, Harari, and Somalis. The campaign drastically reduces Oromo territory.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Equipped with cannons imported through Zeila, the armies of Ahmad Gran penetrate eventually into the heart of Abyssinia after a series of savage battles which are still vividly recalled today. Somali contingents played a notable part in the Imam’s victories. Most prominent were the Darod clans of the Harti faction who were now in possession of the ancient port of Mait in the east. The Majerteyn Darod clan developed their sultanate which came to control much of the coast of north-east Somalia.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • 1543: The Battle of Wayna Daga (‘Galawdewos’); Abyssinian forces with 500 Portuguese musketeers defeat a larger Adal-Ottoman force near Lake Tana. Muslim Leader Ahmad is wounded and beheaded causing Muslim forces to flee the battlefield. Ahmed’s forces collapse, retreating from Ethiopia (Wikiwand).

  • 1543: A small Abyssinian force with 400 Portuguese musketeers defeat the larger Adal-Ottoman army (Wikiwand).

  • 1540: Death of Abyssinian Emperor Dawit II. His son, Menas, is captured by the forces of Ahmad (Wikiwand).

  • 1535: Islamic forces under Ahmad Gran supported by the Turks conquer the S. and Central areas of Ethiopia and invade the N. highlands. The defeated Ethiopians request Portuguese aid (Britannica).

  • 28 Oct, 1531: The Battle of Amba Sel; Muslim forces defeat Ethiopian forces and enter the Ethiopian highlands (Wikiwand).

  • 1531: The Battle of Antukyah; Muslim forces defeat Ethiopian forces after using cannons and causing the Ethiopians to flee (Wikiwand).

  • 1529: Battle of Shimbra Kure; Muslim forces defeat Ethiopian forces (Wikiwand).

  • 1526-1527: Islamic forces under Ahmad Gran (‘the left handed’) supported by the Ottomans defeat an Ethiopian army in Adal (Britannica).

• ~16c: The Ajuran Somali clan in central Somalia around Mogadishu, reach the height of their power before Mogadishu is ruled by the Muzaffar dynasty.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1518: Zeila (Somaliland) is sacked by the Saldanha during a period of Portuguese dominion in the W. Indian.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1415: Abyssinian forces rout Muslim forces. The ruler of Ifat, Sa’d ad-Din, was pursued and killed in his stronghold on the island off the coast of Zeila.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1414-1429: Reign of Abyssinian King Negus Yeshaq; it is in the songs celebrating his victories over the Muslims that the name ‘Somali’ is first recorded.-Somalia by Lewis.

• ~12c-13c: Expansion of Arab Immigration throughout Somalia southerly down both the Shebelle River and the coastline, most likely due to mounting population pressure exacerbated by a series of severe droughts. The Darod and Isaq grow in numbers and territory forcing the Dir to vacate the NE region of Somaliland to the West and South. In the west, the powerful ‘Ise and Gadabursi clans pushed gradually, and not without many setbacks, into what is today Harar Province of Ethiopia and the Jibuti Republic.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • The Somali Dir, Darod, and later the Isaq, begin pressing upon their Oromo neighbors. The Oromo were increasingly thrust westwards and southwards and ultimately into Ethiopia.-Somalia by Lewis.

• ~1200: Sheikh Isaq immigrates to Somalia from Arabia, settling to the W. of the Darod at Mait, and marries into the Local Dir Somali. His descendants, the Dir clans, expand from there.-Somalia by Lewis.

• 1140s: Qadiriya, Islam’s oldest order, is founded in Baghdad by Sayyid ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani.-Somalia by Lewis.

• ~1000: Sheikh Isma‘il Jabarti settles in Somaliland from Arabia and marries into the Local Dir Somali. His descendants, the Darod clans, expand from there.-Somalia by Lewis.

• ~10c: The Digil and Rahanweyn settle amongst the Zanj between the Shebelle and Juba Rivers in Somalia. Neither tribe extended N of the Shebelle, but were in contact with the Oromo tribes, who, in turn, were already under pressure from the expanding Somali in the NE corner of the Horn.-Somalia by Lewis.

• ~Mid-End 10c: Arab and Persian colonizers establish themselves in Somalia, developing a string of coastal settlements along the Horn of Africa, dependent for their prosperity upon the entrepôt trade between Abyssinia, Arabia, and the markets of the East. Principal ports included Zeila, Berbera, Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Zeila: Ancient port and center of Arab influence; one of the chief ports of the Abyssinian hinterland. Through Zeila, local Somali produce, consisting chiefly of hides and skins, precious gums, ghee, and ostrich feathers, and slaves and ivory from the Abyssinian highlands, were exported: and cloth, dates, iron, weapons, and chinaware and pottery imported. Politically, Zeila was originally the center of the Muslim emirate of Adal, part of the state of Ifat, which lay in the plateau region of eastern Shoa. From the time at which the port enters Islamic history, it had apparently a mixed Arab, Somali, and Danakil (‘Afar) population. In the course of time, no one knows exactly when, these three separate elements to some extent fused to form a distinctive Zeila culture and Zeila dialect which was a blend of Arabic, Somali, and ‘Afar.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Berbera: Ancient port and center of Arab influence.-Somalia by Lewis.

  • Mogadishu: Ancient port and historic Somali trading center. In the 10c, Mogadishu port consisted of a loose federation of Arab and Persian families which by the 13c, become a sultanate ruled by the Fakhr ad-Din dynasty. Three centuries later, these rulers were supplanted by the Muzaffar Sultans.-Somalia by Lewis.

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