The God Equation by Kaku

Ref: Michio Kaku (2021). The God Equation, The Quest for A Theory of Everything. Doubleday Publishing.

_______________________________________________________________________________

Summary­

• Scientists may be converging on a single theory that unifies the four forces of nature—gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the strong and weak nuclear forces. This book is about the quest to find the ultimate theory.

• A unified field theory must satisfy three criteria: It must include all of Einstein’s theory of general relativity, the Standard Model of subatomic particles and it must yield finite results.

• The biggest question of all: finding a quantum theory of gravity.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Evolution of Physics

• Ancient Greece

  • Everything consists of invisible, indestructible atoms.

  • The diversity of nature can be described by the mathematics of vibrations.

• Catholic Church

  • There are two kinds of laws: the Laws of Earth; corrupted by the sin of mortals and the Laws of the Heavens; pure, perfect, and harmonious.

• Renaissance Era Scientists

  • Bruno (1600): Life may exist on other planets orbiting other stars.

  • Galileo: Heliocentric Model of the Universe.  

  • Newton: Existence of Gravity; objects move because they are pushed by forces, described using calculus.

• Industrial Era Scientists

  • Michell (1783): Discovery of dark stars (black holes), celestial bodies that appear black because light could not escape their immense gravity. Michell postulated what would happen if gravity was greater than the escape velocity of light at the surface of a star.

    Herschel (1800): Discovery of IR and UV light.

  • Faraday: Electricity and Magnetism; electricity moved because it was pushed by a field. A magnet moving inside a hoop of wire generates electricity and vice versa, electricity can cause magnets to spin.

  • Maxwell: Codified Field Theory uniting the electric and magnetic forces, described using vector calculus. Light is an electromagnetic wave.

• Technological Era Scientists

  • Edison (1882): Invented Direct Current (DC)

  • Tesla (1893): Invented Alternating Current (AC); electricity reverses direction 60x/sec.

  • Hertz (1886): Radio & Radio Waves.

  • Marconi (1894): Wireless Communication.

  • Curie (1895): Radiation.

  • Planck (1900): Quantum Physics.

  • Einstein (1905)

    • Special relativity, the properties of light beams and space-time with 4D symmetry

    • General relativity, gravity is the bending of space-time.

  • Rutherford (1910): Discovered the atom (which is comprised mostly of empty space).

  • Schrodinger (1925): The electron is a wave that surrounds the tiny nucleus. Schrödinger equation said nothing about the speed of light, special relativity, and how electrons interact with light via Maxwell’s equations. His equations treated space and time separately.

  • Dirac (1926): Discovered Anti-matter; his theories combined time and space with 4D symmetry.

    • Dirac Equation: Predicts anti-matter, which obeys the same laws as ordinary matter, except it has the opposite charge. So the anti-electron (the positron) has a positive charge.

  • Bohr (1913): Quantum Theory.

  • Heisenberg (1925): Quantum Theory.

  • Hubble (1929): Big Bang.

• Pre-WWII Era Scientists

  • Bethe (1939): Composition of the sun (using a spectrograph).

    • The sun is made of H, its immense gravity field can compress H until the protons fuse, creating He and the higher elements. Since He weighs a bit less than the protons and neutrons that combine to form it, this means that the missing mass went into energy; Einstein’s E = mc2.

  • Szilard (Feb, 1940): Chain Reactions and the energy potential of fission.

• Post- WWII Era Scientists

  • Feynman (1950): Quantum Electrodynamics (QED); combines Dirac’s theory of the electron with Maxwell’s theory of light, creating a theory of light and electrons that obeys quantum mechanics and special relativity.

  • Pauli (1953): Formulated a 6D theory of Einstein’s field equations.

  • Gell-Mann & Low (1954): Developed Renormalization Theory, which attempts to combine Einstein’s special relativity with Maxwell’s electromagnetism in order to cancel the quantum corrections of QED and the standard model by representing the nuclear and electromagnetic forces as particles, called photons and yang-mills particles.

  • Yang-Mills (1954): Quarks; the Yang-Mills field (called the gluon) holds quarks together in the neutron and proton, and another Yang-Mills field (called the W and Z particles) describe the interaction between electrons and neutrinos.

  • Roy Kerr (1963): Updated our understanding of Blackholes, which do not collapse into a stationary dot (as proposed by Schwarzschild), they:

    • Collapse into a rapidly spinning ring where centrifugal forces on the spinning ring are strong enough to prevent the ring from collapsing under their own gravity.

    • If you fall through the ring, it’s possible you may not be crushed to death at all but may pass through the ring. The gravity inside the ring is actually finite.

    • The mathematics indicates that as you pass through the ring, you could enter a parallel universe or wind up in a distant region of the universe (a wormhole) acting as a shortcut through space and time.

• Modern Era Scientists

  • Hawking (1974): Proposed that Black Holes emit a very faint glow of quantum radiation (Hawking Radiation), which cause black hole evaporation after trillions of years.

  • Pais & Treiman (1975): Introduced the Standard Model, which unifies the electromagnetic force with the nuclear forces (strong and weak) though QED and other models.

  • Guth (1979): Inflation of the Universe and the Multiverse.

    • The universe started out in a false vacuum (similar to the water behind a dam) and expanded rapidly due to a theorized type of Higgs Boson, the inflaton, which makes inflation possible. Then, quantum bubbles occurred within the inflaton field. Inside the bubble, the true vacuum emerged, where the inflation had stopped and our universe emerged as one of these bubbles. The universe slowed down within the bubble, giving us the present-day expansion. This means that our universe is actually a single bubble in a bubble bath of universes. This creates a multiverse of parallel universes.  

  • Salam (1983): Discovered Electroweak theory, which unifies electromagnetism with the weak nuclear force. Light, instead of being united with gravity prefers to be united with the weak nuclear force.

  • Witten (1995): M-Theory- 11D String Theory.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Theory of Relativity

• Einstein asked himself, what happens to Maxwell’s equations if you travel at the speed of light? Using Maxwell’s theory, Einstein calculated the speed of a light beam in a moving object, such as a train. He expected that the speed of the light beam, as seen by a stationary outside observer, would simply be its usual speed plus the speed of the train. His brilliant insight was that since the speed of light is measured by clocks and metersticks, and since the speed of light is constant no matter how fast you move, space and time must be distorted in order to keep the speed of light constant! But if space and time can vary, then everything you can measure must also vary, including matter and energy. And the faster you move, the heavier you become. But where does the extra mass come from? It comes from the energy of motion. This means that some of the energy of motion is turned into mass.

• You can never catch up to light, which always moves at the same velocity, no matter how fast you travel.

• Special Relativity answered one of the deepest questions in all of science: Why does the sun shine? The sun shines because when you compress hydrogen atoms at great temperatures, some of the mass of the hydrogen gets converted to energy.

• If you take Einstein’s equations and rotate space into time and time into space, the equations remain the same (symmetry). This means that the 3D of space are now joined with the dimension of time, T, which becomes the 4D. Einstein showed that the quantity X2 + Y2 + Z2 − T2 (with time expressed in certain units) remains the same.

• Although Einstein showed that space, time, matter, and energy were all part of a larger 4D symmetry, there was one glaring gap in his equation: they said nothing about gravity and accelerations. He was not satisfied. He wanted to generalize his earlier theory, which he called special relativity, so that it included gravity and accelerated motions, creating a more powerful general theory of relativity.

• What would happen if the sun were to instantly disappear? Newton’s famous equation for gravity does not mention the speed of light. Hence gravity travels instantaneously, violating relativity, so the Earth should immediately feel the effect of the missing sun.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Gravity

• When our astronauts in space appear weightless on TV, it is not because gravity has disappeared from space. There is plenty of gravity throughout the entire solar system. The reason is because their rocket is falling at exactly the same rate as they are.

• To explain gravity, physicists, naively, introduced a new point particle of gravity, the graviton.

• If our universe is 3D, then the force of gravity diminishes as the square of the distance of separation. If the universe was 4D, then gravity should diminish as the cube of the distance of separation. (If the universe had N spatial dimensions, then gravity should diminish with the (N −1) power of the distance of separation).

_____________________________________________________________________________

Quantum Theory (Subatomic Particles)

• Quantum Theory: The theory of the very small, which explains the behavior of subatomic particles. In the quantum theory, you start with a symmetry, and then you break it with the Higgs boson to get the universe that we see all around us.

• Max Planck posited that energy, instead of being continuous and smooth as in Newton’s theory, actually occurred in discrete packets he called quanta. When he adjusted the energy of these packets, he found that he could reproduce precisely the energy that radiated from hot objects. The hotter the object, the higher the frequency of radiation, corresponding to different colors on the light spectrum.

• Light: Comprised of photons, which are quanta, or particles, with each photon creating electric and magnetic fields surrounding it. Light energy, or quanta, are measured in terms of a small constant h, Planck’s constant, which is 6.6 × 10-34 Joule-seconds.

• Subatomic Particles

  • Fermions (matter): Electrons, Quarks, Neutrinos, Protons.

  • Bosons (forces): Photon, Graviton, Yang-Mills.

_____________________________________________________________________________

String Theory

• String Theory: The universe is not comprised of point particles but of tiny vibrating strings, with each note corresponding to a subatomic particle. Electrons, quarks, neutrinos, etc. are nothing but vibrations on minuscule loops resembling rubber bands. If we pluck the rubber band enough times and in different ways, we eventually create all the known subatomic particles in the universe. Hence, the laws of physics can be reduced to the harmonies of these strings. Chemistry is the melodies one can play on them.

  • The energy at which String theory becomes relevant is the Planck energy.

• Predictions

  • Electrons, quarks, and Yang-Mills particles are just different notes on the same vibrating string.

  • The Multiverse.

  • The graviton emerges in String theory is one of the lowest vibrations of the string.

  • Supersymmetry corrects for interactions of gravitons with other gravitons.

  • Exists in 11D.  

  • Supersymmetry: Fermions (matter) and bosons (forces) are interchangeable; the particles of the entire universe can be re-arranged into one another.

  • Each particle has a sparticle (super particle).

  • Unification of gravity with quantum theory.

• 1984: John Schwarz and Michael Green showed that string theory was free of all the problems that had doomed previous candidates for a unified field theory.

• The Way Ahead: If M-theory can be written in field theory form, then the entire theory should emerge as a single equation.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Nuclear Forces

• Nuclear Forces: Overcomes electrostatic repulsion (repulsion of protons in the nucleus) to hold the nucleus of the atom together. The nuclear forces are represented by Gauge Theory in 4D. The weak nuclear force is about a million times weaker than the strong force.

  • Strong Nuclear Force: Based on Gell-Mann’s symmetry, which binds the three quarks together to make protons and neutrons and keeps the nucleus of many chemical elements stable indefinitely. The Strong Nuclear Force is represented by Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD).

  • Weak Nuclear Force: Based on smaller symmetry, the rearranging of the electron with the neutrino, which is then combined with electromagnetism.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Black Holes

• Two (known) types of black holes:

  • The remnant of a giant star.

  • The center of galaxies; millions or even billions of times more massive than our sun.

    • At the center of our own Milky Way lies a monster black hole whose mass is 2-4Mx that of our sun. It is located in the constellation Sagittarius; (dust clouds obscure the area, so we cannot see it).

• Black Holes are kept from collapsing due to the repulsive nature of dark matter and dark energy.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Dark Energy & Dark Matter

• ~4.9% of the universe is comprised of atoms like H and He. The rest is hidden from us, in the form of dark matter and dark energy.

  • Dark Matter: ~26.8% of all matter in the universe and surrounds galaxies, keeping them from flying apart.

    • If you analyze the spin of the Milky Way galaxy and use Newton’s laws, you find that there is not enough mass to counteract the centrifugal force. Given the amount of mass we see, the galaxies in the universe should be unstable and they should fly apart, but they have been stable for billions of years.

    • Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs): A leading candidate for dark matter. Among them, one likely possibility is the photino, the supersymmetric partner of the photon. The photino is stable, has mass, is invisible, and has no charge, which fits precisely the characteristics of dark matter.

  • Dark Energy: ~68.3% of all energy in the universe, the energy of empty space driving the galaxies apart.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Theories of the Universe

• Three theories on how the universe will end:

  • Big Freeze: If the density of the universe is low, then there is not enough gravity from the stars and galaxies to reverse the cosmic expansion, and the universe will expand forever and slowly die in the Big Freeze. The stars will eventually use up all their nuclear fuel, the sky will turn black, and even black holes will evaporate. The universe will end in a lifeless, supercold sea of drifting subatomic particles.

  • Big Crunch: If the universe is sufficiently dense, then the gravity of the stars and galaxies might be enough to reverse the cosmic expansion. Then the stars and galaxies will eventually collapse, when temperatures soar and devour all life in the universe.

  • Big Rip: The expansion of the universe accelerates to blinding speed. The universe will expand so quickly that the night sky will become totally black (since light cannot reach us from neighboring stars) and everything approaches absolute zero.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Future Research Models

• International Linear Collider (ILC): Collides electrons and anti-electrons in a straight tube with a relatively much cleaner collisions (as opposed to using protons with three quarks and gluons). As a result, at only 250B eV, it should be able to create Higgs bosons.

• Circular Electron Positron Collider (China): A 100km circumference, 240B eV proton collider, slated to begin in 2022 at a cost of ~$5-6B.

• Future Circular Collider (FCC): 100T eV with an ~100km circumference. Physicists expect to find tiny black holes in the accelerator.

• Laser interferometry space antenna (LISA): Gravity wave detectors that may be able to pick up vibrations from the instant of the Big Bang itself. The ultimate goal is to record the shock waves from the Big Bang, and then run the videotape backward to get the best guess for the radiation before the Big Bang. These pre–Big Bang waves would then be compared to what’s predicted in several versions of string theory.

____________________________________________________________________________

Terminology

• Cellular Communication: When speaking on a cell phone, the energy of the sound of your voice converts to mechanical energy in a vibrating diaphragm. The diaphragm is attached to a magnet that relies on the interchangeability of electricity and magnetism to create an electrical impulse, the kind that can be transported and read by a computer. This electrical impulse is then translated into electromagnetic waves that are picked up by a nearby microwave tower. There, the message is amplified and sent across the globe.

• Closed Timelike Cures (CTCs): Theorized whirlpools in the river of time that may sweep you to the past.

• Critical Mass: The amount of enriched U or Pu necessary to create a chain reaction (~9kg for U-235).

• Cyclotron: A magnetic field forces protons to move in a circular path. At each cycle, the protons are given a small boost of energy by an electric field. Eventually, after many revolutions, the beam of protons can reach millions and even billions of eV. This beam, in turn, is eventually directed at a target, where it smashes into other protons. By sifting through the enormous debris from this collision, scientists are able to identify new, previously undiscovered particles.

• Determinism: The philosophy that all future events can be accurately predicted.

• Dualism: The material body coexists with a spiritual soul.

• Duality: When two entirely different theories are mathematically equivalent.

• Earth’s Core: Since radioactive decay can take place over billions of years, it means that the Earth’s core can stay heated by the decay of uranium, thorium, and other radioactive elements.

• Echo (aka Afterglow): The glow left over from the Big Bang.

• Electrostatic Repulsion: An excess of protons which overcomes the strong nuclear force causing the nucleus to fly apart.

• Electroweak Theory: Unifies electromagnetism with the weak nuclear force. Light, instead of being united with gravity, prefers to be united with the weak nuclear force.

• Equivalence Principle: Acceleration in one frame is indistinguishable from gravity in another frame.

• General Relativity: Space-time is warped by heavy masses, causing the illusion of gravitational force.

• Graviton Radiation: Radiation from gravity itself that may be enough to cause a wormhole to explode.

• Gravity Lenses (aka Einstein Lenses): Bending of light as it passes an object with mass, i.e. a distant galaxy.

• Higgs Field: The field necessary to shift to the true (but broken) vacuum.

• Hydroelectric Dam: A river pushes against a wheel that spins a magnet that then generates electricity.

• Inflation: Turbocharged expansion of the universe following the Big Bang. Inflation basically flattened the universe, eliminating much if its curvature. The implications of inflation are far-reaching. It means that the visible universe that we see around us is actually a tiny, infinitesimal piece of a much larger universe, one that we will never see because it is so far away.

• Landscape Problem: String Theory predicts not just our universe, but a multiverse. There are several possible solutions to this problem, none of them widely accepted:

  • Anthropic Principle: One solution to the landscape problem; our universe is special because we, as conscious beings, are here to discuss this question in the first place. In other words, there might be an infinite number of universes, but our universe is the one that has the conditions that make intelligent life possible.

• Large Hadron Collider (Geneva): The largest machine of science ever built, costing more than $12B and stretching almost 30km in circumference. Inside the tube, protons are accelerated until they reach extremely high energy. Then they collide with another high-energy beam of protons heading in the opposite direction, releasing 14T eV and creating an enormous shower of subatomic particles. The world’s most advanced computers are then used to make sense out of this cloud of particles. The goal of the LHC is to duplicate the conditions found shortly after the Big Bang and thereby to create these unstable particles. Finally, in 2012, the Higgs boson, the last piece of the Standard Model, was found.

• Magnetic Field: Generated from the spin of the electrons trapped inside a metal.

• Neutron Decay: An excess of neutrons which causes the nucleus to decay.

• Olbers Paradox: The night sky should be white, not black.

  • The final answer to Olbers Paradox was given by Edgar Allan Poe in 1848. Being an amateur astronomer, he was fascinated by the paradox and said that the night sky is black because, if we travel back in time far enough, we eventually encounter a cutoff—that is, a beginning to the universe. In other words, the night sky is black because the universe has a finite age. We do not receive light from the infinite past, which would make the night sky white, because the universe never had an infinite past. This means that telescopes peering at the farthest stars will eventually reach the blackness of the Big Bang itself.

• Photon: Light is not just a wave but acts like a packet of energy, or a particle. Light is made of photons, which are quanta, or particles, but each photon created fields surrounding it (electric and magnetic fields).

• Planck Energy: The energy possessed by gravitons.

• Schrödinger’s Cat: Schrödinger devised a simple thought experiment that exposed the essence of the problem. Place a cat in a sealed box. Put a piece of U in the box. When the U fires a subatomic particle, it triggers a Geiger counter that sets off a gun that fires a bullet at the cat. The question is: Is the cat dead or alive? Since the firing of a U atom is a purely quantum event, it means that you have to describe the cat in terms of quantum mechanics.

  • To Heisenberg, before you open the box, the cat exists as a mixture of different quantum states—that is, the cat is the sum of two waves. One wave describes a dead cat. The other wave describes a live cat. The cat is neither dead nor alive but a mixture of both. The only way to tell if the cat is dead or alive is to open the box and make an observation; then the wave function collapses into a dead or live cat. In other words, observation (which requires consciousness) determines existence.

• Space-Time Foam (Hawking): A foam of tiny bubble universes continually popping up and disappearing back into the vacuum. The natural time scale for these bubble universes is the Planck time, 10−43 seconds. Most universes only live for this brief instant.

• Special Relativity: Time slows down the faster you move.

• Spectrograph: Heats substances up until they began to glow with blackbody radiation, which is sent through a prism creating a band of rainbow colors. The darker bands are created because electrons make quantum jumps from orbit to orbit, releasing and absorbing specific amounts of energy. Since each element creates its own characteristic bands, then each spectral band is like a fingerprint, allowing you to determine what this substance is made of.

• Superforce: Unification of the four forces at the instant of the Big Bang obeying Master Symmetry.

• Supersymmetry: Fermions (matter) and bosons (forces) are interchangeable; the particles of the entire universe can be re-arranged into one another.

  • Symmetry Breaking: Breaking of the Superforce into the four fundamental forces.

• Symmetry: An object that when rearranged, is left the same, or invariant. Force Symmetry:

  • Strong nuclear force, shuffles three quarks among each other.

  • Weak Nuclear Force, shuffles electrons and neutrinos.

  • Electromagnetism, shuffles the Electric and Magnetic Fields of Maxwell.

• Transistor: A gate that controls the flow of electrons. Like turning a valve, one can control the flow of water in a pipe. In the same way, a transistor is like a tiny electronic valve that allows a small amount of electricity to control the much larger flow of electrons in a wire. Thus, a small signal can be amplified.

• Uncertainty Principle: You cannot know precisely the velocity and location of an electron. I.e., electrons are particles, but the probability of finding the particle at any given location is given by a wave function. (Heisenberg).

  • I.e., you cannot reach absolute zero, because atoms, in their lowest quantum energy state, are still vibrating. (Similarly, according to quantum mechanics, you cannot reach zero energy quantum mechanically, because you still have zero-point energy—that is, the lowest quantum vibrations. A state of zero vibration would violate the uncertainty principle, since zero energy is a state of zero uncertainty, which is not allowed.)

_____________________________________________________________________________

Misc Quotes

• “A man said to the universe: “Sir, I exist!” “However,” replied the universe, “The fact has not created in me a sense of obligation.”-Stephen Crane, Poet.

• “Everything can be reduced to a mixture of four fundamental ingredients: earth, air, fire, and water.”-Aristotle.

• “Everything can be reduced to tiny, invisible, indestructible particles he called atoms (meaning “indivisible” in Greek).”-Democritus.

• “A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because the opponents eventually die and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it.”-Planck to Einstein.

• “Does the moon exist because a mouse looks at it?”-Unk.

• “What God has torn asunder, let no man put together” (if God had torn apart the forces in the universe, then who were we to try to put them back together)?-Pauli.

• “What you said was so confused that one could not tell whether it was nonsense or not.”-Wolfgang Pauli.

• “I do not mind if you think slowly, but I do object when you publish more quickly than you think.”-Wolfgang Pauli.

• “God does not play dice with the world” (that is, you cannot reduce everything to chance and uncertainty).-Einstein.

• “The question of all questions for humanity, the problem which lies behind all others and is more interesting than any of them, is that of the determination of man’s place in Nature and his relation to the Cosmos.”-Huxley, 1863.

• “One problem is that there are really two kinds of Gods, and we often confuse the two. First, there is the personal God, the God that you pray to, the God of the Bible who smites the Philistines and rewards the believers. Then, there is the God of Spinoza—that is, the God of order in a universe that is beautiful, simple, and elegant. The universe could have been ugly, random, chaotic, but instead it has a hidden order that is mysterious yet profound.”-Einstein.

• “If the universe is like a vast library, is there a librarian?”-Kaku.

• Famous proofs of the existence of God.-St. Thomas Aquinas, 13c.

  • Cosmological proof: Things move because they are pushed—that is, something sets them into motion. But what is the First Mover or First Cause that set the universe into motion? This must be God.

  • Teleological proof: Everywhere around us we see objects of great complexity and sophistication. But every design eventually requires a designer. The First Designer was God.

  • Ontological proof: God, by definition, is the most perfect being imaginable. But one can imagine a God that does not exist. But if God did not exist, he would not be perfect. Therefore he must exist.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Chronology

• 2012: Discovery of the Higgs Boson (force) at the LHC, the final piece of the standard model.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1998: Astronomers discover that the universe is speeding up.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1997: Juan Maldacena demonstrates that a supersymmetrical Yang-Mills Theory, which describes the behavior of subatomic particles in 4D, is dual, or mathematically equivalent, to string theory in 10D.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1995: M-Theory (11-D String Theory) is first proposed by Edward Witten.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1964: Discovery of residual radiation from the Big Bang by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson using the Giant Holmdel Radio Telescope. (At first, they thought that this background radiation was due to a defect in their apparatus. According to legend, they realized their mistake when they gave a talk at Princeton, and someone in the audience said, “Either you have detected bird shit, or the creation of the universe.” Today, this microwave background radiation is perhaps the most persuasive and convincing evidence for the Big Bang.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1964: Discovery of the Omega- Minus, another particle predicted by the quark model.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 6 May, 1952: Discovery of DNA as a double helix following X-ray analysis of photos taken by Rosalind Franklin.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1944: ‘What is Life?’ is published by Schrödinger, positing that a genetic code was somehow being transported from one generation of living organisms to the next. He believed that this code was stored not in a soul but in the arrangement of molecules in our cells.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1940: Collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in Washington State.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1930: The Sixth Solvay Conference is held in Brussels; Einstein, Schrödinger, Bohr, Heisenberg.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1929: Discovery of the expanding universe is by Edwin Hubble using the Mount Wilson Observatory telescope in California. Wilson analyzed the Doppler shift of distant galaxies; when a star moves away from us, the wavelength of its light is stretched so it turns slightly reddish, when the star moves toward us, the wavelength is compressed, so it turns slightly blueish. Hubble found that, on average, the galaxies were redshifted and so moving away from us.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1929: Invention of the Cyclotron by Ernest Lawrence.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1910: Discovery that atoms are composed primarily of empty space by Ernest Rutherford. He had put a piece of glowing radium in a lead box with a minuscule hole. A tiny beam of radiation emerged from the hole, aimed at a thin sheet of gold. It was expected that the atoms of gold would absorb the radiation. To his shock, he found that the beam from the radium went right through the sheet, as if it weren’t there.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1900: Birth of Quantum physics when German physicist Max Planck asked himself a simple question: Why do objects glow when hot? Planck posited that energy occurs in discrete packets called quanta. When he adjusted the energy of these packets, he found that he could reproduce precisely the energy that radiated from hot objects. The hotter the object, the higher the frequency of radiation, corresponding to different colors on the light spectrum.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1898: Marie and Pierre Curie isolate a new series of unstable elements, never before seen. Without any power source, radium glowed brightly in the laboratory, violating the conservation of energy (energy can never be created or destroyed).-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1894: Introduction of Wireless Radio transmission by Guglielmo Marconi.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1886: Wireless Transmission is demonstrated by physicist Heinrich Hertz who creates an electric spark in a corner of his lab which generates electricity in a coil of wire several feet away.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1869: Dmitry Mendeleyev has a dream, in which all the elements of nature fall into a table.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1861: Maxwell’s equations are devised coupling electricity and magnetics.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1846: Discovery of Neptune; astronomers, predominantly Urbain Le Verrier, noted a strange wobble in the orbit of Uranus and used mathematics to determine the exact position of Neptune.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1800: Discovery of Infrared (IR) light by William Herschel who created a rainbow using a prism and placed a thermometer below the color red. To his surprise, the temperature of this blank area rose.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1783: Discovery of dark stars (black holes) by Michell; celestial bodies that appear black because light could not escape their immense gravity. Michell had postulated what would happen if gravity was greater than the escape velocity of light at the surface of a star.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1682: Haley’s comet sails over London.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1666: Newton observes an apple falling from a tree, while walking around his country estate.-God Eq by Kaku.

• 1600: Execution of former monk Giordano Bruno for heresy. He was gagged, paraded naked in the streets of Rome, and burned at the stake for declaring that life may exist on planets circling other stars.-God Eq by Kaku.

• Post Big Bang: The universe undergoes inflation, a turbocharged expansion, which flattens the universe eliminating its curvature. It cools causing symmetry breaking.-God Eq by Kaku.

• Big Bang: The four fundamental forces exist as a Superforce, obeying Master Symmetry.-God Eq by Kaku.

_____________________________________________________________________________