JPME Ph. I Mod III WWII War in the Pacific from the USNWC
Ref: Naval War College (Various). JPME Ph. I Mod III: WWII War in the Pacific. Joint Professional Military Education (JPME).
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Summary
Notes from various readings, instructors, presentations from the US Naval War College’s Joint Professional Military Education (JPME) Phase I Mod III Course covering the WWII War in the Pacific.
"War came because the Japanese Government had committed itself to a policy of aggressive expansion and the domination of Asia, which the US Opposed.”
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American Strategy
American outrage over the attack on Pearl Harbor led to a determination to wage a total war for unlimited political objectives.
The US was absence of constraints: no political goal other than unconditional surrender of the enemy.
"Hold Hawaii, Support Australia. Drive NW from New Hebrides."-USN Admiral King to FDR, (Mar, 1942).
US Naval TF, built around a carrier group that had a combined strength of many hundreds of AC, surface ships in close support, and a revolutionary system of mobile supply bases that overcame distance and logistic difficulties.
The American purpose was obvious: to prepare the way for the blockade and economic strangulation of Japan.
Aim of the War
Self-determination of peoples
Equal access to trade and resource opportunities
Freedom of the seas
Final destruction of tyranny
Permanent system of general security
American Pacific Strategy
Aid China
Protect Alaska- Hawaii- Panama Arc (to protect US Coastline) until sufficient force was collected to move westward.
Maintain SLOC to Australia
Limited Offensive to prevent Japan from closing its Pacific Ring
Advance towards Home Islands
Break fleet into TFs to throw the enemy off balance.
Keep constant pressure on Japan.
Offensive in the Atlantic vs a defensive in the Pacific.
Unlimited Submarine Warfare.
During the pacific war, attrition- that is, attacks from submarines, AC, or small surface ships other than those in major engagement- accounted for nearly half the losses suffered by the navy in surface ships from destroyer up.
US Subs sink 201 Japanese warships, a third of all those sunk by the American Forces during the war.
US submarines sank 1,113 ships of the Japanese merchant marine.
Naval Aviation, which could project its firepower with great speed and range.
Keep China in the war while assisting in the return to power of Chiang Kai-Shek.
Reopen the door to American trade in China.
Restore American access to the rich resources of SE Asia.
Prod the British to set the pace among the European Colonial powers in planning towards self-determination for their colonies.
Maintain valuable wartime relations with Australia and NZ.
Encourage the USSR to enter the conflict against Japan.
Policy of "Defeat Germany First."
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---Japan---
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Japanese Strategy
Worried about an oil embargo by the US which would require Japan to attack Dutch East Indies for oil led to the signing of a tripartite pact. This led to major war preparation but was marked with huge issues between the Army and the Navy, which led to the invasion of Annam, Cochin China, Cambodia (July, 1941) and Japanese occupation of Southern Indochina. US, GB. and NL impose total embargo on Japan, which led, inevitably, to war.
Overlooked was the fact that by signing the Tripartite Pact, Japan had not only further antagonized the US, which supplied the bulk of the IJN’s strategic materials, but had tied itself to the military ambitions of two nations that, half the world away and with desperate resource needs of their own, were not in a position to supply any strategic materials to Japan.
The navy believed that war with the US should be initiated in either of two situations: if a "favorable opportunity" presented itself, or if hostilities were deemed "inevitable" because Japan had been driven into a corner by Anglo-American embargoes or other measures that threatened Japan's very existence.
For the navy, the fuel problem had now reached a level at which the establishment of some sort of future hegemony over SE Asia- economic or political- seemed worth such a confrontation.
On the First day of the war, by putting out of action the US battleships at Pearl Harbor, the Japanese successfully attacked American Strategy.
Russia was Japan's #1 hypothetical enemy.
Basic Axiom of Japan's Strategic Tradition- fight one enemy at a time.
The Navy favored a policy of Nanshin (Southwards Advance) while the Army favored Hokushin (Northwards Advance). This led to the Kokusaku no Kijun (Fundamental Principles of National Policy).
Japanese Pacific Strategy
Decisive Battle: The IJN sought to wait and react to fight a single decisive battle.
Emphasis on Spirit (Seishin)
Naval Operations against Hong Kong, British North Borneo, (Malay, PI, and Dutch East Indies).
Cease the PI: It stood between Dutch East Indies and Japanese home Islands and American planes could target Japanese SLOCs between the two.
Three Stages: Clear away the enemy outposts, secure the flanks of the Japanese southward thrust- Malaya and the Pl, and then, using forces that had completed these tasks, move through Makassar Strait, to concentrate on the central and weakly protected prizes: Java and Sumatra.
Move to a secure strategic perimeter: seizure of American and British possessions in the western Pacific (Guam, Wake Island, and the Gilberts); the occupation of Thailand; and the conquest of Northern Malaya, British territories in Borneo and the Pl.
Attach and eliminate American Offensive Air Power on Luzon, Davao, Mindanao.
Japanese forces should drive into Southern Malaya and seize Singapore, invade S. Burma, and occupy the N. Islands of the East Indies.
Occupy Burma and secure the richest prizes of all, Sumatra and Java.
IJN’s Biggest Worry: A counter-thrust by American naval forces from across the Pacific (Hawaii).
Yamamoto sought a crippling initial blow to American offensive power in the Pacific.
QJapanese National Objective: Secure the strategic resources of SE Asia, particularly oil.
Wait and React Strategy: Evolved in three stages:
Searching Operations designed to seek out and annihilate the lesser American naval forces.
Attrition Operations against a westward-moving American main battle force coming to assist.
Decisive encounter in which the American Force would be crushed and Americans forced to negotiate.
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Japanese Failures
Continuously planned only towards enemy MLCOAs.
Failed to adapt warplans to enemy MDCOAs.
Failed to ensure sea control of the Indian Ocean (Japan should have blocked the BAM and the SOH).
Failed to address the submarine threat or protect their vital merchant shipping.
Japan turned a blind eye to their greatest vulnerability in time of war, its absolute dependence upon seaborne imports.
In August, 1945 Japan had in service only 12% of its prewar merchant fleet and because of fuel losses only half of that, some 312,000 tons, was in operation. By comparison, that the Allies at that time had 88,000,000 tons of merchant shipping capacity, double what they had at the beginning of the war.
Failed to understand the nature of the conflict.
Failed to understand and prepare for modern naval war.
Failed to appreciate the size of the arena.
Failed to establish robust logistics support over large areas.
Trusted in divine guidance.
Limited coordination between Army and Navy
Japan's version of the JCS had no overall chief of staff or individual with ultimate authority.
Sought parity in international conferences, which the allied forces were not willing to concede; Japan walked out of conferences vice attempting further diplomatic efforts.
Lacked higher level strategic planning.
No viable strategy of amphibious defensive warfare
Failure of strategic planning between axis powers.
Failed to achieve concentration before battle
US was decrypting much of Japanese Secret message traffic via MAGIC (decryption of Japanese Purple Machine).
Remained wedded to the concept of defensive strategy and decisive battle.
Modern warfare requires that the conduct of military operations be coordinated with foreign policy, political developments, and economic realities, whereas Japanese military concerns were often considered in isolation.
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Technology
RADAR
VT (Proximity) Fuze
B29 with 2500km range (1944).
Signals INTEL- MAGIC.
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Economics
Japan's productivity could not have kept pace with America's, and that is the essential fact of the war. During the war, the US produced 11x as much coal as Japan, 222x as much oil, >13x as much steel, almost 40x as many artillery, shells, and so on.
In 1943 only 3 Aircraft Carriers were under construction in Japanese Yards, while 22 were being built in the US. In 1943 Japan's aircraft production was only 20% of Americas.
"The Navy (IJN) is consuming 400 tons of oil an hour.”-IJN Admiral Nagano.
In Mar, 1934, the Japanese Navy Ministry (Kaigunsho) Armament Limitation Research Committee estimates that Japanese shipbuilding capacity was 45,000 tons per year, compared to 80,000 tons in the US. In other words, Japan could match only 55% of US Shipbuilding output.
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Logistics
The US maintained an at-sea resupply system using a self-sustaining fast-carrier task force (TF-58), which was always on the move. provisioned at sea, combining and recombining at will.
At war's end, Japan had only 1.5 million tons of merchant shipping left from a prewar total of 6.4 million tons, and much of this remainder lay damaged or blockaded in Japanese ports. The destruction of the merchant marine seriously degraded nearly every aspect of the IJN’s ability to remain an effective fighting force, not to mention the crippling effect it had on the ability of the nation as a whole to carry on the war.
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Misc Quotes
"Quantity has a quality of its own."-Lenin.
“National destinies were measured by the strength or weakness of sinews of national power beyond those purely military; diplomacy, political leadership, trade, economic structure, industrial base, scientific and technological competence, civilian morale, the ability to manipulate public opinion, and the rest of the elements that came to comprise total war.”
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Chronology
2 Sep, 1945: The Japanese Surrender aboard the USS Missouri.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
Aug, 1945: The USSR invades Manchuria.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
8 Aug, 1945: The USSR breaks its neutrality agreement with Japan.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
1 Apr- 22 Jun, 1945: The Battle of Okinawa, the last of WWII; US forces Invade Okinawa, only 550km from Japan, with 183K forces. The island is defended by 110K dug-in Japanese and they draw on 10 major assault waves of Kamikazes consisting of 1465 suicide planes that sink 26 US Warships while damaging another 164. US casualties on land and sea total 49,151 including 12,520 KIA while Japan loses ~110K KIA including both Japanese soldiers and Okinawan conscripts. ~40K-150K civilians perish (out of a pre-war estimate of 300K).-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
19 Feb, 1945: The Battle of Iwo Jima, the midpoint on the bomber route between the Marianas and Japan; V Amphibious Corps assaults the island with two marine divisions. The battle results in ~6K USMC KIA, the bloodiest in USMC history.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
Taking Iwo Jima eliminates a Japanese early warning post for Japan, gives land-based, tactical air cover to the fleet when it moves to within range of home islands, provides an emergency landing field and refueling base for the bombers of XXI bomber command.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
Jan- Jul, 1945: Battle of the Philippines (Invasion of Luzon); the US Army re-takes the PI, suffering 47K casualties including 10,380 KIA, the USN takes 2K casualties, mostly from Kamikazes, while fighting ~432K dug in Japanese.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
Oct, 1944: The battle of Leyte Gulf is fought as the initial stage of the return to the PI. In tonnage engaged and space covered, Leyte Gulf is the greatest naval battle of all time. Japan loses 68 warships (3 battleships, 4 carriers, 10 cruisers, 9 destroyers). The Americans lose 1 light carrier, 2 escort carriers, 2 destroyers, and 1 destroyer escort. Leyte was fought as four separate battles.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
Battle of Sibuyan Sea: Carrier and Sub attack on Kurita’s force as it approached the San Bernardino Strait.
Battle of Surigao Strait:
Battle of Cape Engano: US Admiral Halsey chases, and destroys, Ozawa's fleet, opening up the San Bernardino Strait.
Battle of San Bernardino Strait: Kurita's main Japanese Force enter the San Bernardino Strait and is beaten by Spruance.
10 Aug, 1944: Capture of the Marianas is complete.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
15 Jun- 9 Jul, 1944: The Battle of Saipan, the key to the defense of Japan, is fought in the Mariana Islands as part of US Operation Forager. US Army and Marines conduct an amphibious assault of the island forcing the Japanese to withdrawal. The Japanese suffer >25K KIA to ~3200 US KIA.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
4 July, 1944: The millionth American soldier lands in France.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
19 Jun, 1944: The Battle of the Philippine Sea.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
Japanese Admiral Ozawa v. Spruance's 5th fleet. Ozawa hoped to draw the 5th fleet between his land-based air and his carrier-based air. Ozawa lost 476 planes, 445 pilots, 3 carriers, and 2 carriers damaged.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
1944: The US introduces the B29 bomber with a 2500km range.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
20-23 Nov, 1943: The Battle of Tarawa is fought between Japan and the US led allies as part of Operation Galvanic, the US invasion of the Gilberts. Tarawa was the first American offensive in the critical central Pacific region and the first time the US had faced serious Japanese opposition to an amphibious landing. The 4500 Japanese on the island fight almost until the last man. Taking the island was an important victory because it opened the way to the Marshalls.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
7 Aug, 1942- 9 Feb, 1943: The Battle of Guadalcanal (‘Operation Watchtower’) is fought as the first major land offensive by allied forces against the Empire of Japan. The USMC conduct am amphibious assault of the Solomon Islands, capturing the beaches and the airfield, later named Henderson Field. The Japan withdraw from the Solomons.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
4-7 June, 1942: The Battle of Midway; the USN decisively defeats under Nimitz, Fletcher, and Spruance defeat an attacking flet of the IJN under Admirals Yamaoto, Nagumo, and Nobutake N of Midway Atoll. The IJN loses 4 fleet carriers, 248 aircraft, and 3057 KIA while the USN loses a fleet carrier and suffers 307 KIA.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
After Midway, Japan drops the Southern Campaign and goes on the defensive.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
4-8 May, 1942: The Battle of Coral Sea is fought between the IJN and the USN as the first naval battle in which neither sighted nor fired upon one another, instead using carrier-based aircraft to attack from over the horizon. Both sides suffer heavy losses and disengage.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
9 Apr, 1942: Bataan surrenders to Japanese Forces.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
8 Mar, 1942: Java surrenders to Japanese Forces.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
15 Feb, 1942: Singapore surrenders to Japanese Forces.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
2 Jan, 1942: Manila falls to Japanese Forces.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
10 Dec, 1941: Japanese Planes sink British vessels Prince of Wales and Repulse.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
7-8 Dec, 1941: Japanese Surprise Attack on Pearl Harbor and Clarks Field, PI.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
"By launching a surprise attack on the US Pacific Fleet, seen by Americans as "infamous," the navy created a political, psychological, and ultimately, strategic climate in the US that made an unlimited war- a fight to the finish- inevitable."
At the time, the US had 8 carriers, with 521 planes aboard them. On V-J Day, only four years later, the Navy had afloat 28 larger and 71 smaller aircraft carriers, and naval aviation commanded 41,272 planes.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
"The attack can be considered a thorough strategic and resounding tactical success. The battle line of the US Pacific Fleet went to the bottom of Pearl Harbor, the multiple operations to conquer SE Asia could proceed without interference, and the US Navy was unable to launch a major trans-Pacific counteroffensive for 2 years. All this at the cost of 29 aircraft and 5 midget subs.”
5 Nov, 1941: The Japanese brief Order No. 1; an attack on Pearl Harbor.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
Apr, 1941: Japan signs a neutrality pact with the USSR, freeing themselves of a threat to Manchuria and opening the ability to advance southwards.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
27 Mar, 1941: The USG approves $7B for lend lease assistance.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
1 Feb, 1941: The USN drops the designation "United States Fleet,” and begins using PACFLT and ATLFLT.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
Dec, 1940: Capture of the Automedon; Japan obtains top secret British documents indicating that Britain would not go to war against Japan.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
Jun, 1940: The USG passes the Vinson Act, expanding the USN.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
1940: Japan renews its ties with the axis powers in the hope that a new connection, the Tripartite Pact, might lead to a reproachment with the USSR, Germany's new treaty partner. Soviet Friendship would serve as well as the lost policy of constraint to secure the Northern border of Manchuria and free Japan for Southward Expansion.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
May, 1940: The US Pacific Fleet moves HQ from San Diego to Pearl Harbor.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
1939: Abrogation of the long-standing US-Japan Commercial Treaty.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
1939: The Hitler-Stalin Nonaggression Pact is signed.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
1938: The US Expands the Navy for the first time since WWI, funding construction of the Vinson class carrier.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
1937: Japan cedes from the treaty system.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
1935-1936: The Second London Naval Conference for Arms Limitation; the treaty structure collapses and an arms race begins.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
1931: Japan invades Manchuria.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
1929: The US’ Fleet Problem IX establishes the carrier as a separate striking force at the center of a new tactical formation.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
1922: Japan joins the Washington Naval Limitation Treaty, forcing the IJN to limit her battleship tonnage to a ratio of 60% of that of the British Royal Navy and USN, and thus to scrap 48,000 tons worth of battleships.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
27-28 May, 1905: The Battle of Tsushima; the Japanese fleet under Admiral Togo defeats the Russian Baltic fleet in the Sea of Japan. The Russians lose 28 battleships and 4800 KIA while the Japanese lose only three torpedo boats and 100 KIA. ‘Taikan Kyohosyugi’ becomes the doctrine for the IJN, the principles of ‘big ships and big guns’.-JPME Ph I Mod III by USNWC.
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